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Get a clean Master

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# English translationAcademy
# English Translation Manual
## Overview

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### Why Check?
The translation team's goal is produce a translation that is accurate, natural, clear, and accepted by the church. This goal will likely require the partnership of different people, resources, and tools to accomplish. For this reason, the checkers play a very important role in helping the translation team accomplish their goal.
The goal of checking is to help the translation team produce a translation that is accurate, natural, clear, and accepted by the church. The translation team also wants to achieve this goal. This might seem easy, but it is actually very difficult to do, and takes many people and many, many revisions to the translation to achieve. For this reason, the checkers play a very important role in helping the translation team to produce a translation that is accurate, natural, clear, and accepted by the church.
#### Accurate
The checkers who are pastors, church leaders, and leaders of church networks will help the translation team produce a translation that is accurate. They will do this by comparing the translation with the source language and, when possible, also with the original languages of the Bible. They are also encouraged to use the translation tools created specifically for checking and available at bibleineverylanguage.org.
The checkers who are pastors, church leaders, and leaders of church networks will help the translation team produce a translation that is accurate. They will do this by comparing the translation with the source language and, when possible, also with the original languages of the Bible. (For more information about accurate translations, see [Create Accurate Translations](../../translate/guidelines-accurate/01.md).)
#### Clear
The checkers who are members of the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is clear. They will do this by listening to (or reading) the translation and pointing out (to the translators) the places where the translation is confusing or does not make sense to them. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are clear.
The checkers who are members of the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is clear. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation is confusing or does not make sense to them. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are clear. (For more information about clear translations, see [Create Clear Translations](../../translate/guidelines-clear/01.md).)
#### Natural
The checkers who are members of the language community will also help the translation team produce a translation that is natural. They will do this by listening to (or reading) the translation and pointing out (to the translators) the places where the translation sounds strange-- does not sound the way that someone who speaks their language would say it. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are natural. (Translation notes, available at bibleineverylanguage.org is a tool that provides suggestions for handing meaning naturally in difficult passages.)
The checkers who are members of the language community will also help the translation team produce a translation that is natural. They will do this by listening to the translation and pointing out to them the places where the translation sounds strange and does not sound like the way that someone who speaks their language would say it. Then the translation team can fix those places so that they are natural. (For more information about natural translations, see [Create Natural Translations](../../translate/guidelines-natural/01.md).)
#### Church-approved
The checkers who are members of a church in the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is approved and accepted by the church in that community. They will do this by working together with members and leaders of other churches from the language community, using the tools available at bibleineverlanguage.org as well as their own resources and other translations to carefully check the content of the newly translated scripture. When members and leaders that represent the churches of a language community work together and agree that the translation is good, then it will be accepted and used by the churches in that community.
The checkers who are members of a church in the language community will help the translation team produce a translation that is approved and accepted by the church in that community. They will do this by working together with members and leaders of other churches from the language community. When members and leaders that represent the churches of a language community work together and agree that the translation is good, then it will be accepted and used by the churches in that community. (For more information about translations that are approved by the church, see [Create Church-Approved Translations](../../translate/guidelines-church-approved/01.md).)

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**** Authentic Assessment process
Translation teams should work together (This is oftn done during the second day of a translation workshop.) to develop an authentic assessment rubric of at least 10 qualities that must be present for a scripture translation to be considered good. These ten qualities are then defined and a measurement for testing them is created, usually in the form of a question. The translation team is guided through this process and the rubric is written down as a guide which will help translators to assess their quality as they go. Thus, the draft is being tested by the same objectivce criteria from the very start of the project. For steps to complete this process, and sample rubrics go to v-raft.com.
### Translation Checking Manual
This manual describes how to check translated biblical content for accuracy, clarity, and naturalness.
The manual begins with instructions for checking the translation that the translation team will use to check each other's work. If they follow these instructions, they will complete checking level one. Then there are instructions for the translation team to use for checking the translation with the language community for clarity and naturalness, and for church leaders to use when they check the translation for accuracy. If they follow these instructions, they will complete checking level two. This manual also contains instructions for the leaders of church networks to use for checking the translation for accuracy at level three.
The manual also includes further instructions for checking the translation that the leaders of church networks can use to check the translation. Because many leaders of church networks do not speak the language of the translation, there are also instructions for creating a back translation, which allows people to check a translation in a language that they do not speak.

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What is Authentic Assessment and how does it apply to quality assurance?
What is the Checking Manual?

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Introduction to Authentic Assessment in checking Scripture
Introduction to the Checking Manual

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### Translation Checking
As part of the translation process, it is necessary that several people check the translation to make sure that it is clearly communicating the message that it should communicate. A beginning translator who was told that he needed to have his translation checked, once said, "But I speak my native language perfectly. The translation is for that language. What more is needed?" There are two specific thigs to keep in mind in answer to that question.
#### Introduction
One thing is that he may not have understood the source text correctly; someone else who knows the source language better may know what it should say and can help to correct the translation. Or it could be that he did not understand something about what the Bible meant to communicate at a certain place. In this case, someone who knows the Bible well, such as a Bible teacher or a Bible translation checker, can clarify th emeaning of the passage and help the translator determine a more correct translation.
As part of the translation process, it is necessary that several people check the translation to make sure that it is clearly communicating the message that it should communicate. A beginning translator who was told to check his translation once said, "But I speak my native language perfectly. The translation is for that language. What more is needed?" What he said was true, but there are two more things to keep in mind.
The other thing is that, although the translator may know very well what the text should say, the way he translated it might mean something else to a different person. That is, another person might think that the translation is talking about something other than what the translator intended, or the person hearing or reading the translation might not understand what the translator was trying to say. That is why it is always necessary to check what someone else understands from the translation to improve both clarity and accuracy where needed.
One thing is that he may not have understood the source text correctly, and so someone who knows what it should say might be able to correct the translation. This could be because he did not correctly understand a phrase or expression in the source language. In this case, someone else who understands the source language well can correct the translation.
The checking process begins as soon as a draft has been completed. The MAST method includes four steps of checking, each providing opportunity for additional individuals to participate. When the eight steps of MAST have been completed properly, the translation is considered to be level 1 checked.
Or it could be that he did not understand something about what the Bible meant to communicate at a certain place. In this case, someone who knows the Bible well, such as a Bible teacher or a Bible translation checker, can correct the translation.
Two additional levels of checking allow for more exposure to a broader group within the language community. These are not to be viewed as hierarchial but rather spherical--the levels expand the number of eyes that have assessed the translation.
The other thing is that, although the translator may know very well what the text should say, the way he translated it might mean something else to a different person. That is, another person might think that the translation is talking about something other than what the translator intended, or the person hearing or reading the translation might not understand what the translator was trying to say. That is why it is always necessary to check what someone else understands from the translation so that we can make it more accurate and more clear.
This is a guide to the process of checking, in the form of a scale with three levels.
This checking scale helps to show the extent to which the accuracy and clarity of a translation have been verified. These checking levels have been developed by the unfoldingWord network (see https://unfoldingword.org ), the same group that manages Door43 with the help of many volunteers, and they are used to indicate the checking level of all biblical content on Door43.
#### The Checking Levels
There are three checking levels:
* [Checking Level One - Affirmation by Translation Team](../level1/01.md)
* [Checking Level Two - Affirmation by Community](../level2/01.md)
* [Checking Level Three - Affirmation by Church Leadership](../level3/01.md).
Any translation that has not yet been checked to Level One is considered to have not been checked and is assigned no checking status.
The purpose of having several Checking Levels is to make translated materials quickly available to the church, while also allowing the content to continue to be checked and corroborated in an open environment. At all times, the degree to which its accuracy has been checked will be clearly indicated. We believe this will result in a faster checking process, allow broad church participation and ownership, and produce better translations.
*Credits: Quotation used by permission, © 2013, SIL International, Sharing Our Native Culture, p. 69.*

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Here are some important tips to remember when working with Checking Levels:
* Only translations that have reached Checking Level One or higher will be made available on the unfoldingWord website and the unfoldingWord mobile app.
* Only scripture translations that have reached Checking Level Three will be approved as source texts for other translations.
* The levels are designed to expand the sphere of people who have the opportunity to check the quality of the translation.
* Only translations that have reached Checking Level One or higher will be made available on the unfoldingWord website and the unfoldingWord mobile app. (see http://ufw.io/content/)
* Only translations that have reached Checking Level Three will be approved as source texts for other translations.
* When a checking level has been completed and all appropriate edits have been made to the translation on door43, the checkers will inform unfoldingWord of the details of the check, including who did the checking and their title or qualifications as a translation checker. unfoldingWord will then harvest a copy of what is on door43, digitally publish a static copy of it on the unfoldingWord website (see https://unfoldingword.org ) and make it available on the unfoldingWord mobile app. A print-ready PDF will also be produced and made available for download. It will continue to be possible to change the checked version on door43, allowing for future checking and editing.
* For *Open Bible Stories* projects: Only *Open Bible Stories* translations that have been made from version 3.0 or higher of the English source text are eligible to be checked to Level One (or higher). Translations made from versions before 3.0 must be updated before proceeding with Checking Levels. (see [Source Texts and Version Numbers](../../translate/translate-source-version/01.md))
### The Checking Levels
The three checking levels are as follows:
The strategy for quality assurance of unfoldingWord content, including *Open Bible Stories*, is described briefly here and in detail at http://ufw.io/qa/.
* Checking level one: approved by the translation team.
* Checking level two: approved by the leaders of a local church and the christian community.
* Checking level three: approved by the leaders of multiple local churches, a network of churches, or multiple evangelical denominations.
The three-level checking scale we use is dependent on the unfoldingWord [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md). All translated content is compared against the theology of the Statement of Faith and against the procedures and methodologies of the Translation Guidelines. With these documents forming the foundation, these are the three levels of checking used in the unfoldingWord project:
During a MAST workshop the translators engage in the checking steps (step 5-8) as a team. This platform assures that the individual's work is edited by other members. Additionally, these steps give team members the responsibility of working together to agree on and affirm the final prodect. Once this is done, level one has been achieved.
* [Checking Level One - Affirmation by Translation Team](../level1/01.md)
* [Checking Level Two - Affirmation by Community](../level2/01.md)
* [Checking Level Three - Affirmation by Church Leadership](../level3/01.md)
Once level one has been achieived, the team is encourageed to print or otherwise publish their translation so that it can be immediately useful. At this time they are also invited to upload their translation to the Wycliffe Associates content server. This provides for the next two checking levels. When the translation has been tested by church leaders and other Christian members of the community it is considered to have reached level two. Finally, some translation teams may wish to have their work tested and approved by a network of denominational leaders and scholars. If this is achieived the translation is considered to have reached a level three.
### Checking the Checkers
Once the translation has reached level one, the translation team and church leaders will determine what further checking and subsequent levels should be reached. The levels as explained in this manuel are a guide for affirming quality and expanding the exposure of a new translation.
The process and checking framework described in this document depends on an ongoing process of checking and revising content, as determined by the Church that uses the content. Feedback loops are encouraged (and modeled in translation software, where feasible) with a view to maximizing input from the greatest number of users of the content. The translations of the content are made available on the translation platform (see http://door43.org ), which is designed to make it easy for users to collaboratively create content that increases in quality over time.

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### Checking Level One – Translation Team Check
Level One checking will be done primarily by the translation team; it can also include help from others in the language community. The translator or translation team should check their translation often (usually as soon as a whole chapter is drafted) so that they can correct mistakes as early as possible in the translation process. Sometimes a step will have to be repeated before moving on to the next step.
Level One checking will be done primarily by the translation team, with some help from others in the language community. The translator or translation team should check their translation before they translate very many stories or chapters of the Bible, so that they can correct mistakes as early as possible in the translation process. Many of the steps in this process will need to be done several times before the translation is finished.
Translations of Bible texts and biblical content are able to be published after they reach Checking Level One. This enables the broadest reach of the content as an active project, with an open invitation to others in the language community (implied or direct) to help improve the translation.
For the purposes of the unfoldingWord project, translations of Bible texts and biblical content are able to be published after they reach Checking Level One. This enables the broadest reach of the content as an active project, with an open invitation to others in the language community (implied or direct) to help improve the translation.
### Steps for level one checking:
### Steps for checking under Level One:
These are the steps that the translation team must follow in order to achieve Checking Level One:
1. Once a portion has been drafted, the translator of that section will perform a self-edit, using the source text, and other available tools to check the draft.
2. When the translator has completed the self-edit, another translator on the team will perform a peer edit, carefuly comparing the translated text to the source text and using any other available tools to confirm the accuracy and meaningfulness of the translation. He may also provide feedback and comments on spelling, naturalness and flow. The person conducting the peer edit does not have authority to make changes; his role is to provide feedback and suggestions to the translator of the draft who then makes changes as he deems necessary.
3. The keywords of the passage or systematically checked against the list of key words in the available tool designed specifically to support this checking step. Alternatively, the translation team can create their own list of key words--abstract spiritual terms, historical and geographical terms and names--and carefully compare their drafted text to that list. This step is typically done by the translator and at least one other member of the translation team.
4. Each verse is carefully checked comparing the drafted text to the original source text, looking for any missing portions or added material. This check is typically done with the translator of the passage and at least one other member of the translation team--preferably a different member than assisted in the keyword check.
1. **Contact.** Make contact with at least one element of the unfoldingWord network, notifying unfoldingWord that you intend to begin translation. To get information about how to do that, see [Finding Answers](../../intro/finding-answers/01.md)
1. **Review.** Review the [Translation Guidelines](../../intro/translation-guidelines/01.md).
1. **Agree.** Agree that the Statement of Faith is an accurate reflection of your own beliefs and that you intend to translate the content in harmony with it and also in accordance with the Translation Guidelines by signing the form. (see http://ufw.io/forms/)
1. **Draft.** Make a draft translation of some portions of the text. For instructions on how to make a draft translation, see [First Draft](../../translate/first-draft/01.md)
1. **Self Check**. For instructions on how to do a Self Check of your draft translation, see [Self Check](../self-check/01.md).
1. **Peer Check**. For instructions on how to do a Peer Check of your draft translation, see [Peer Check](../peer-check/01.md).
1. **translationWord Check**. For instructions on how to do an translationWord Check of your draft translation, see [translationWord Check](../important-term-check/01.md).
1. **Accuracy Check**. For instructions on how to do an Accuracy Check of your draft translation, see [Accuracy Check](../accuracy-check/01.md).
1. **Affirmation**. Affirm that you, as a translation team or individual, have made full use of the translationNotes, the definitions of translationWords, and the other exegetical and translation checking resources in the translation process, and that you have followed the steps for checking under Level One.
When these steps have been completed, edits have been incorporated into the translated portion, and the translation team is collectively satisifed with the product, it is considered level one checked. At this point, if the translation team desires to do so, they are invited to upload the translation to the Wycliffe Associates content server. It can then be published to bibleineverylanguage.org to reach a broader community.
(For instructions on how to affirm completion of Level One, see [Level 1 Affirmation](../level1-affirm/01.md).)

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### Checking Level Two - External Check
The purpose of Level Two checking is to engage representative groups from the local language community to assess the quality of the translating and contribute to its improvement where needed.
The purpose of Level Two checking is to verify that representative groups from the local language community agree that the translation is a good one.
### Level two Checking
The level two check focuses on pastors and the Christian community within the target language. Once the translation team has reached level one with its translation, the translation is ready to be shared outside the team for further review. Ideally, a leader on the translation team will work with local pastors and Christians to check the scripture's clarity and naturalness.
The translator or leader will read (if it is a written translation) a portion of the translation to the gathered listeners. Before reading, he should tell the people listening to stop him if they hear something that does not sound natural. Alternatively, if the people are literate, each one in the group can be asked to read a passage of the newly translated material. It is best, even if everyone in the group is literate, to have the portions read out loud to the whole group. Portions should not be too long (this is subjective to the abilities of the group, and type of passage). It's also very important for listeners to understand that they are now a part of the team helping to improve and affirm the quality of the scripture. They, themselves are not being tested. Rather the questions are designed to help them provide feedback on the meaningfulness of the new translation.
These tools have been created to assist teams in checking and are recommending for use during this level--translation questions, translation notes, and the reviewer's guide. They are available on bibleineverylanguage.org. Additionally, the translation questions and translation notes are embedded in tStudio. During the MAST workshop, the translation team was asked to develop a rubric for testing and affirming the quality of their work. More information on this strategy is available at v-raft.org. This rubric will help the team determine which tools and methods to apply to the level two check within their community.
Key elements of this level of checking are: pastors AND Christians in the community have read (or listened to) the translated scriptures and contributed to their improvement, the above listed tools have been employed for ensuring accuracy and completeness, the translation team has been responsible to respond to feedback and implement changes in the translation where needed. When this has been done, the translation is considered to be at level two.
Level Two checking will be done in two ways:
1. **Language Community Check**. The translation will be checked by members of the language community to make sure that it is clear, natural, and understandable. For the steps to follow to do the Language Community Check, see [Language Community Check](../language-community-check/01.md).
1. **Church Leader Check**. The translation will be checked by a group of church leaders from the language community to make sure that it is accurate. For the steps to follow to do the Church Leader Check, see [Church Leader Check](../church-leader-check/01.md).
Once this has been done, this work needs to be affirmed (see [Level 2 Affirmation](../good/01.md)).

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### Checking Level Three
### Checking Level Three - Authenticated Check
Level Three checking will be done by groups or organizations that are recognized by the churches in a language community. The leaders from these groups will verify that they approve the translation. This approval is not required for distribution of the translation, but rather serves to validate it.
Level Three checking will be done by groups or organizations that are recognized by the churches in a language community. The leaders from these groups will verify that they approve of the distribution and use of the translation among the people affiliated with them. This approval is not required for distribution of the translation, but rather serves to validate it.
Participants in this level of checking need to be different from the ones who participated in level two. Each level is an expansion of exposure, and this is most significant in affirming the quality as well as noting any needed improvements.
Those who do Level Three checking need to be other than the people who did Level Two checking.
The intent of this level is to affirm the alignment of the translation with the intent of the original texts and the sound doctrine of the Church historic and universal, through the review and affirmation by the leadership of the Church that speaks the language. Level 3 is thus achieved by the mutual agreement of the leadership of multiple church networks. The Church networks should be representative of the churches in the language community. Those checking the translation should be first-language speakers of the language, and those signing off on the check are those in leadership roles in the Church networks. A leader of a Church network who is also a first-language speaker of the language of the translation could both check the translation and sign off on its quality.
Level 3 is completed when the translation has been thoroughly checked and approved by the leadership (or their delegates) of at least two church networks. At this level, those who are participating in the check should (when possible) be trained/ordained through the church network and should therefore use every aspect of their own knowledge and training tools to check the scriptures. Addtionally, translation notes, translation words, translation questions, and the Reviewer's Guide--tools that are freely accessible on Bibleineverylanguage.org--are ideal for using at this level of checking. A translator, as designated by the translation team, should work with these checkers. If any areas of correction are recommended, the translator will take these concerns and recommended changes to the translation team to decide how to best improve the translation and what edits need to be made. Once the translation team has addressed suggestions to the satisfaction of the checking team, the scripture is considered to be checked to level three.
Level 3 is completed when the translation has been thoroughly checked and approved by the leadership (or their delegates) of at least two church networks that have personnel trained in biblical languages and content.
To proceed with Level Three checking, go to [Questions for Checking on Level Three](../level3-questions/01.md).

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### How to Get Answers
There are several resources available for finding answers to questions:
* **Translation Manual** - This training manual is available [here](https://door43.org/u/WycliffeAssociates/en_ta/248d51ac0d/) and has much information including:
* [Introduction](https://door43.org/u/WycliffeAssociates/en_ta/248d51ac0d/#ta-intro) - introduces the information about project
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question "what do I do to take a translation from start to finish?"
* **translationAcademy** - This training manual is available at http://ufw.io/ta and has much information including:
* [Introduction](../ta-intro/01.md) - introduces the unfoldingWord project
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question "what next?"
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and practical translation helps
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of MAST checking theory
* **Helpdesk** - email <helpdesk@techadvancement.com> with your questions
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices
* **Slack Chatroom** - Join the Team43 community, post your questions to the "#helpdesk" channel, and get real-time answers to your questions (sign up at http://ufw.io/team43)
* **Helpdesk** - email <help@door43.org> with your questions

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Hot to Get Answers
Finding Answers

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*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/gl/.*
### Explanation
The objective of the gateway languages strategy is to equip 100% of the people groups that comprise the global Church with biblical content that is released from copyright restrictions and made available in a language they understand well (a language of wider communication) together with unrestricted translation training and tools that enable them to translate it into a language they understand fully (their own language). A "gateway language" is a language of wider communication through which second-language speakers of that language can gain access to content and translate it into their own language.

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#### Statement of Faith
Found at [Bible In Every Language](https://bibleineverylanguage.org/statement-of-faith/)
* We believe in the divine inspiration and consequent authority of the whole canonical Scriptures
* We believe in the doctrine of the Trinity
* We believe in the fall of man, his consequent moral depravity and his need of regeneration
* We believe in the atonement through the substitutionary death of Christ
* We believe in the doctrine of justification by faith
* We believe in the resurrection of the body, in the case of the just and the unjust
* We believe in the eternal life of the saved and the eternal punishment of the lost
*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/faith/.*
*The following statement of faith is subscribed to by all member organizations of and contributors to the [unfoldingWord](https://unfoldingword.org/) project. It is in agreement with the [Lausanne Covenant](http://www.lausanne.org/en/documents/lausanne-covenant.html).*
*The following statement of faith is subscribed to by all member organizations of and contributors to the [unfoldingWord](https://unfoldingword.org/) project. It is in agreement with these historical creeds: [Apostles’ Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/apostles.md), [Nicene Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/nicene.md), and [Athanasian Creed](https://git.door43.org/Door43/en_creeds/src/master/content/athanasian.md); and also the [Lausanne Covenant](http://www.lausanne.org/en/documents/lausanne-covenant.html).*
We believe that Christian belief can and should be divided into **essential beliefs** and **peripheral beliefs** (Romans 14).

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The Translation Manual is intended to enable anyone, anywhere to equip themselves so that they will be able to make high-quality translations of biblical content into their own language. The manual is designed to be highly flexible. It can be used in a systematic, in-advance approach or it can be used for just-in-time learning (or both, as needed). It is modular in structure.
translationAcademy contains the following sections:
The Translation Manual contains the following sections:
* [Introduction](../ta-intro/01.md) - introduces translationAcademy and the unfoldingWord project
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and practical translation helps
* [Just In Time Topics](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - these are practical translation helps that are also linked from the translationNotes
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices
* [Translation Tips and Practices](../../translate/translate/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and practical translation helps
* [Learning Topics](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - these are practical translation helps that are also linked from the translationNotes
* [Checking](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices

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What is translationAcademy?
What is the Translation Manual?

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Introduction to the Translation Manual
Introduction

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*The official version of this document is found at http://ufw.io/guidelines/.*
*The following statement on the principles and procedures used in translation is subscribed to by all member organizations of and contributors to the unfoldingWord project (see https://unfoldingword.org). All translation activities are carried out according to these common guidelines.*
1. **Accurate** — Translate accurately, without detracting from, changing, or adding to the meaning of the original text. Translated content should faithfully communicate as precisely as possible the meaning of the original text as it would have been understood by the original audience. (see [Create Accurate Translations](../../translate/guidelines-accurate/01.md))

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### Description
Parts of speech are categories of words. The different categories of words have different functions in a sentence. All languages have parts of speech, and all words in a language belong to a part of speech. Most languages have these basic parts of speech, with some variations, and some languages have more categories than this. This is not an exhaustive list of parts of speech, but it covers the basic categories.
**VERBS** are words that express either an action (such as come, go, eat) or a state-of-being (such as is, are, was). More detailed information can be found on [Verbs](../figs-verbs/01.md).
**NOUNS** are words that represent a person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are generic, that is, they do not refer to any specific entity (man, city, country). Names, or proper nouns, refer to a specific entity (Peter, Jerusalem, Egypt). (For more information see) [How to Translate Names](../translate-names/01.md).
**PRONOUNS** take the place of nouns and include such words as he, she, it, you, they, and we. More detailed pages on pronouns can be found on [Pronouns](../figs-pronouns/01.md).
**CONJUNCTIONS** are words that join phrases or sentences. Examples include and, or, but, for, yet, nor. Some conjunctions are used in pairs: both/and; either/or; neither/nor; not only/but also. More information about these can be found on [Connecting Words](../writing-connectingwords/01.md)
**PREPOSITIONS** are words that begin phrases which connect a noun or verb with more detail about that noun or verb. For example, "The girl ran <u>to her father</u>." Here the phrase with the preposition "to" tells the direction of the girl's running (the action) in relation to her father. Another example is, "The crowd <u>around Jesus</u> grew in numbers." The phrase with the preposition <u>around</u> tells the location of the crowd in relation to Jesus. Some examples of prepositions are to, from, in, out, on, off, with, without, above, below, before, after, behind, in front of, among, through, beyond, among.
**ARTICLES** are words that are used with nouns to show whether or not the speaker is referring to something that his listener should be able to identify. In English these words are: "a", an, the. The words <u>a</u> and <u>an</u> mean the same thing. If a speaker says "<u>a dog,</u> he does not expect his listener to know which dog he is talking about; this might be the first time he says anything about a dog. If a speaker says <u>the</u> dog, he is usually referring to a specific dog, and he expects his listener to know which dog he is talking about. English speakers also use <u>the</u> to show that they are talking about something in general. For example, they can say "<u>The</u> elephant is a large animal" and refer to elephants in general, not a specific elephant. More information about this can be found on [Generic Noun Phrases](../figs-genericnoun/01.md).
**ADJECTIVES** are words that describe nouns and express such things as quantity, size, color, and age. Some examples are: many, big, blue, old, smart, tired. Sometimes people use adjectives to give some information about something, and sometimes people use them to distinguish one item from another. For example, in <u>my elderly father</u> the adjective <u>elderly</u> simply tells something about my father. But in <u>my eldest sister</u> the word <u>eldest</u> distinguishes that sister from any other older sisters I might have. More information about this can be found on [Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding](../figs-distinguish/01.md).
**ADVERBS** are words that describe verbs or adjectives and give details such as how, when, where, why, and to what extent. Many English adverbs end in <u>ly</u>. Some examples of adverbs: slowly, later, far, intentionally, very.

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### Description
In common English, "possession" refers to having something, or to something that a person has. In English that grammatical relationship is shown with <u>of</u>, or an apostrophe and the letter <u>s</u>, or a possessive pronoun.
* the house <u>of</u> my grandfather
* my grandfather<u>'s</u> house
* <u>his</u> house
Possession is used in Hebrew, Greek, and English for a variety of situations. Here are a few common situations that it is used for.
* Ownership - Someone owns something.
* My clothes - The clothes that I own
* Social relationship - Someone has some kind of social relationship with another.
* my mother - the woman who gave birth to me, or the woman who cared for me
* my teacher - the person who teaches me
* Contents - Something has something in it.
* a bag of potatoes - a bag that has potatoes in it, or a bag that is full of potatoes
* Part and whole: One thing is part of another.
* my head - the head that is part of my body
* the roof of a house - the roof that is part of a house
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Translators need to understand the relationship between two ideas represented by the two nouns when one possesses the other.
* Some languages do not use possession for all of the situations that your source text Bible might use it for.
### Examples from the Bible
#### Possession with objects or people
##### Ownership
>... the younger son ... wasted <u>his money</u> with wildly extravagant living. (Luke 15:13)
In the example above, the son owned the money.
##### Social relationship
>Then <u>the disciples of John</u> came to him. (Matthew 9:14 ULB)
In the example above, the disciples were people who learned from John.
##### Material
>On their heads were something like <u>crowns of gold</u> (Revelation 9:7)
In the example above, the crowns were made of gold. Gold was the material used for making the crowns.
##### Contents
>Whoever gives you <u>a cup of water</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward. (Mark 9:41 ULB)
In the example above, the cup has water in it.
##### Part of a whole
>But Uriah slept at <u>the door of the king's palace</u> (2 Samuel 11:9 ULB)
In the example above, the door was a part of the palace.
##### Part of a group
>To <u>each one of us</u> has been given a gift (Ephesians 4:7 ULB)
In the example above, "us" refers to the whole group, and "each one" refers to the individual members.
#### Possession with Events
Sometimes one or both of the nouns is an abstract noun that refers to an event or action. In the examples below, the abstract nouns are in **bold** print. These are just some of the relationships that are possible between two nouns when one of them refers to an event.
**Subject** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who would do the action named by the first noun.
>The <u>**baptism** of John</u>, was it from heaven or from men? Answer me." (Mark 11:30)
In the example above, <u>John baptized people</u>.
>Who will separate us from <u>the **love** of Christ</u>? (Romans 3:35)
In the example below, <u>Christ loves us</u>.
**Object** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who or what something would happen to.
>For <u>the **love** of money</u> is a root of all kinds of evil. (1 Timothy 6:10 ULB)
In the example above, <u>people love money</u>.
**Instrument** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells the instrument that would be used to do something.
>then be afraid of the sword, because wrath brings <u>the **punishment** of the sword</u> (Job 19:29 ULB)
In the example above, God would <u>punish people by sending enemies to attack them with swords</u>.
**Representation** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells what the idea before "of" represents.
>As John came, he was baptizing in the wilderness and was preaching <u>a **baptism** of repentance</u> for the forgiveness of sins. (Mark 1:4 ULB)
In the example above, John was teaching people that they should be baptised to show that they were repenting of their sins. Their <u>baptism represented their repentance</u>.
### Strategies for learning what the relationship is between the two nouns
1. Read the surrounding verses to see if they help you to understand the relationship between the two nouns.
1. Read the verse in the UDB. Sometimes it shows the relationship clearly.
1. See what the notes say about it.
### Translation Strategies
If possession would be a natural way to show a particular relationship between two nouns, consider using it. If it would be strange or hard to understand, consider these.
1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other.
1. Use a verb to show how the two are related.
1. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other. The adjective below is in **bold** print.
* **On their heads were something like <u>crowns of gold</u>** (Revelation 9:7)
* On their heads were <u>**gold** crowns</u>
1. Use a verb to show how the two are related. In the example below, the added verb is in bold.
* **... Whoever gives you <u>a cup of water</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward.** (Mark 9:41 ULB)
* ... Whoever gives you <u>a cup that **has** water in it</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward.
* **Wealth is worthless on <u>the day of wrath</u>** (Proverbs 11:4 ULB)
* Wealth is worthless on <u>the day when God **shows** his wrath</u>.
* Wealth is worthless on the <u>day when God **punishes** people because of his wrath</u>.
1. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb. In the examples below, that verb is in bold.
* **Notice that I am not speaking to your children, who have not known or seen <u>the punishment of Yahweh your God</u>,** (Deuteronomy 11:2 ULB)
* Notice that I am not speaking to your children who have not known or seen <u>how Yahweh your God **punished** the people of Egypt.</u>
* **You will only observe and see the <u>punishment of the wicked</u>.** (Psalm 91:8 ULB)
* You will only observe and see <u>how Yahweh **punishes** the wicked</u>.
* **... you will receive the gift <u>of the Holy Spirit</u>.** (Acts 2:38 ULB)
* ... you will receive <u>the Holy Spirit, whom God will **give** to you</u>.

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### Description
Verbs are words that refer to an action or event or that is used in describing or identifying things.
**Examples** The verbs in the examples below are underlined.
* John <u>ran</u>. ("Run" is an action.)
* John <u>ate</u> a banana. ("Eat" is an action.)
* John <u>saw</u> Mark. ("See" is an event.)
* John <u>died.</u> ("Die" is an event.)
* John <u>is</u> tall. (The phrase "is tall" describes John. The word "is" is a verb that links "John" with "tall.")
* John <u>looks</u> handsome. (The phrase "is handsome" describes John. The word "looks" here is a verb that links "John" with "handsome.")
* John <u>is</u> my brother. (The phrase "is my brother" identifies John.)
### People or Things Associated with a Verb
A verb usually says something about someone or something. All of the example sentences above say something about John. "John" is the **subject** of those sentences. In English the subject usually comes before the verb.
Sometimes there is another person or thing associated with the verb. In the examples below, the underlined word is the verb, and the phrase in bold print is the **object**. In English the object usually comes after the verb.
* He <u>ate</u> **lunch**.
* He <u>sang</u> **a song**.
* He <u>read</u> **a book**.
* He <u>saw</u> **the book**.
Some verbs never have an object.
* The sun <u>rose</u> at six o'clock.
* John <u>slept</u> well.
* John <u>fell</u> yesterday.
For many verbs in English, it is alright to leave out the object when the object is not important in the sentence.
* He never <u>eats</u> at night.
* He <u>sings</u> all the time.
* He <u>reads</u> well.
* He cannot <u>see</u>.
In some languages, a verb that needs an object must always take one, even if the object is not very important. People who speak those languages might say the sentences above like this.
* He never <u>eats</u> **food** at night.
* He <u>sings</u> **songs** all the time.
* He <u>reads</u> **words** well.
* He cannot <u>see</u> **anything**.
### Subject and Object Marking on Verbs
In some languages, the verb may be a little bit different depending on the persons or things associated with it. For example, English speakers sometimes put "s" at the end of the verb when the subject is just one person. In other languages marking on the verb may show whether the subject is "I," "you," or "he"; singular, dual, or plural; male or female, or human or non-human.
* They __eat__ bananas every day. (The subject "they" is more than one person.)
* John __eats__ bananas every day. (The subject "John" is one person.)
### Time and Tense
When we tell about an event, we usually tell whether it is in the past, the present, or the future. Sometimes we do this with words like "yesterday," "now," or "tomorrow."
In some languages the verb may be a little bit different depending on the time associated with it. This kind of marking on a verb is called **tense**. English speakers sometimes put "ed" at the end of the verb when the event happened in the past.
* Sometimes Mary <u>cooks</u> meat.
* Yesterday Mary <u>cooked</u> meat. (She did this in the past.)
In some languages speakers might add a word to tell something about the time. English speakers use the word "will" when the verb refers to something in the future.
* Tomorrow Mary <u>will cook</u> meat.
### Aspect
When we tell about an event, sometimes we want to show how the event progressed over a period of time, or how the event relates to another event. This is **aspect**. English speakers sometimes use the verbs "is" or "has" and add "s," "ing," or "ed" to the end of the verb in order to show how the event relates to another event or to the present time.
* Mary <u>cooks</u> meat every day. (This tell about something Mary often does.)
* Mary <u>is cooking</u> the meat. (This tells about something Mary is in the process of doing right now.)
* Mary <u>cooked</u> the meat, and John <u>came</u> home. (This simply tells about things that Mary and John did.)
* While Mary <u>was cooking</u> the meat, John came home. (This tells about something Mary was in the process of doing when John came home)
* Mary <u>has cooked</u> the meat, and she wants us to come eat it. (This tells about something Mary did that is still relevant now.)
* Mary <u>had cooked</u> the meat by the time Mark came home. (This tells about something that Mary completed in the past before something else happened.)

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@ -5,7 +5,6 @@ dublin_core:
contributor:
- 'Susan Quigley, MA in Linguistics'
- 'Henry Whitney, BA Linguistics'
- 'Tabitha Price'
- 'James N. Pohlig, M.Div., MA in Linguistics, D. Litt. in Biblical Languages'
- 'Bev Staley'
- 'Carol Brinneman'
@ -23,7 +22,7 @@ dublin_core:
identifier: 'en'
title: 'English'
direction: 'ltr'
modified: '2019-01-30'
modified: '2017-11-30'
publisher: 'unfoldingWord'
relation:
- 'en/ulb'
@ -39,7 +38,7 @@ dublin_core:
subject: ''
title: 'Translation Manual'
type: 'man'
version: '022019'
version: '9'
checking:
checking_entity:
@ -53,7 +52,7 @@ projects:
identifier: 'intro'
path: './intro'
sort: 0
title: 'Introduction to Translation Manual'
title: 'Introduction'
versification:
-
categories:
@ -61,15 +60,15 @@ projects:
identifier: 'translate'
path: './translate'
sort: 1
title: 'Translation Manual'
title: 'Translation Tips and Practice'
versification:
-
categories:
- 'ta'
identifier: 'JIT'
path: './translate'
identifier: 'just-in-time'
path: './jit'
sort: 2
title: 'Just In Time Topics'
title: 'Learning Topics'
versification:
-
categories:

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The Bible often speaks of God as if he were a shepherd and his people were sheep. This is a cultural model.
<blockquote>Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)</blockquote>
>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
>Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
Some of the cultural models in the Bible were used much by the cultures in the Ancient Near East, and not only by the Israelites.

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving body parts and human qualities are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### An ANIMAL HORN represents strength
>God is my rock. I take refuge in him.
>He is my shield, the horn of my salvation, my stronghold, and my refuge,
> the one who saves me from violence. (2 Samuel 22:3 ULT)
>the one who saves me from violence. (2 Samuel 22:3 ULB)
The "horn of my salvation" is the strong one who saves me.
>There I will make the horn of David to grow. (Psalm 132:17 ULT)
>There I will make a horn to sprout for David. (Psalm 132:17 ULB)
The "horn of David" is King David's military strength.
The "horn" of David is King David's military strength.
#### BIRDS represent people who are in danger and defenseless
This is because some birds are easily trapped.
>My enemies have relentlessly hunted me like a bird, without cause. (Lamentations 3:52 ULT)
>I have been hunted like a bird by those who were my enemies. (Lamentations 3:52 ULB)
>Save yourself like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,
>like a bird from the hand of the fowler. (Proverbs 6:5 ULT)
>like a bird from the hand of the fowler. (Proverbs 6:5 ULB)
A fowler is a person who catches birds, and a snare is a small trap.
A fowler is a person who catches birds.
>We have escaped like a bird out of the snare of the fowlers;
>the snare has been broken, and we have escaped. (Psalm 124:7 ULT)
>the snare has been broken, and we have escaped. (Psalm 124:7 ULB)
A snare is a small trap.
#### BIRDS THAT EAT MEAT represent enemies who attack swiftly
In Habakkuk and Hosea, Israel's enemies who would come and attack them were compared to an eagle.
<blockquote> and their horsemen come from a great distance—they fly like an eagle hurrying to eat! (Habakkuk 1:8 ULT) </blockquote>
> Their horsemen come from a great distance—they fly like an eagle hurrying to eat. (Habakkuk 1:8 ULB)
>An eagle is coming over the house of Yahweh.
>... Israel has rejected what is good,
>and the enemy will pursue him. (Hosea 8:1,3 ULT)
>and the enemy will pursue him. (Hosea 8:1, 3 ULB)
In Isaiah, God called a certain foreign king a bird of prey because he would come quickly and attack Israel's enemies.
>I call a bird of prey from the east, the man of my choice from a distant land; (Isaiah 46:11 ULT)
>I call a bird of prey from the east, the man of my choice from a distant land. (Isaiah 46:11 ULB)
#### A BIRD'S WINGS represent protection
This is because birds spread their wings over their chicks to protect them from danger.
>Protect me like the apple of your eye; hide me under the shadow of your wings
> from the presence of the wicked ones who assault me, my enemies who surround me. (Psalms 17:8-9 ULT)
>from the presence of the wicked ones who assault me, my enemies who surround me. (Psalm 17:8-9 ULB)
Here is another example of how the wings represent protection.
>Be merciful to me, God, be merciful to me,
>for I take refuge in you until these troubles are over.
> I stay under your wings for protection until this destruction is over. (Psalm 57:1 ULT)
>I stay under your wings for protection until this destruction is over. (Psalm 57:1 ULB)
#### DANGEROUS ANIMALS represent dangerous people
@ -57,35 +60,32 @@ In Psalms, David referred to his enemies as lions.
>My life is among lions;
>I am among those who are ready to devour me.
>I am among people whose teeth are spears and arrows,
>and whose tongues are sharp swords.
>Be exalted, God, above the heavens (Psalm 57:4 ULT)
>and whose tongues are sharp swords. (Psalm 57:4 ULB)
Peter called the devil a roaring lion.
>Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary—the devil—like a roaring lion is stalking around, looking for someone to devour. (1 Peter 5:8 ULT)
>Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary the devil is stalking around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. (1 Peter 5:8 ULB)
In Matthew, Jesus called false prophets wolves because of the harm they did to people by their lies.
>Beware of false prophets, those who come to you in sheep's clothing, but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULT)
>Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULB)
In Matthew, John the Baptist called the religious leaders poisonous snakes because of the harm they did by teaching lies.
>But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him for baptism, he said to them, "You offspring of poisonous snakes, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Matthew 3:7 ULT)
In Matthew, John the Baptist called the religious leaders vipers because of the harm they did by teaching lies. Vipers are a kind of poisonous snake.
>But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him for baptism, he said to them, "You offspring of vipers, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Matthew 3:7 ULB)
#### EAGLES represent strength
>He satisfies your life with good things
> so that your youth is renewed like the eagle. (Psalm 103:5 ULT)
<blockquote>For Yahweh says this, "See, the enemy will come flying like an eagle, spreading out his wings over Moab." (Isaiah 48:40 ULT) </blockquote>
>so that your youth is renewed like the eagle. (Psalm 103:5 ULB)
>For Yahweh says this, "See, the enemy will come flying like an eagle, spreading out his wings over Moab." (Jeremiah 48:40 ULB)
#### SHEEP or a FLOCK OF SHEEP represents people who need to be led or are in danger
>My people have been a lost flock. Their shepherds have led them astray in the mountains; (Jeremiah 50:6 ULT)
>My people have been a lost flock. Their shepherds have led them astray in the mountains. (Jeremiah 50:6 ULB)
<blockquote>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULT) </blockquote>
>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
>Israel is a sheep scattered and driven away by lions. First the king of Assyria devoured him;
>then after this, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon broke his bones. (Jeremiah 50:17 ULT)
>Israel is a wandering sheep driven away by lions.
>First the king of Assyria devoured him;
>then after this, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon broke his bones. (Jeremiah 50:17 ULB)
<blockquote>See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. Watch out for people! They will deliver you up to councils, and they will whip you in their synagogues. (Matthew 10:16 ULT) </blockquote>
>See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. Watch out for people! They will deliver you up to councils, and they will whip you in their synagogues. (Matthew 10:16 ULB)

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### Description
Some images from the Bible related to farming are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does appear.
#### A FARMER represents God, and the VINEYARD represents his chosen people
>My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
> He spaded it and removed the stones, and planted it with the choicest vine.
>He spaded it, removed the stones, and planted it with an excellent kind of vine.
>He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1-2)
>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1-2)
<blockquote> For the kingdom of heaven is like a landowner who went out early in the morning to hire workers for his vineyard. (Matthew 20:1 ULT)</blockquote>
> For the kingdom of heaven is like a landowner who went out early in the morning to hire workers for his vineyard. (Matthew 20:1 ULB)
> There was a man, a person with extensive land. He planted a vineyard, set a hedge about it, dug a winepress in it, built a watchtower, and rented it out to vine growers. Then he went into another country. (Matthew 21:33 ULT)
>There was a man, a landowner. He planted a vineyard, set a hedge about it, dug a winepress in it, built a watchtower, and rented it out to vine growers. Then he went into another country. (Matthew 21:33 ULB)
#### The GROUND represents people's hearts (inner being)
>For Yahweh says this to each person in Judah and Jerusalem: 'Plow your own ground,
> and do not sow among thorns. (Jeremiah 4:3 ULT)
>and do not sow among thorns. (Jeremiah 4:3 ULB)
<blockquote>When anyone hears the word of the kingdom but does not understand it.... This is the seed that was sown beside the road. What was sown on rocky ground is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy....What was sown among the thorn plants, this is the person who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the deceitfulness of riches choke the word.... What was sown on the good soil, this is the person who hears the word and understands it. (Matthew 13:19-23 ULT)</blockquote>
>When anyone hears the word of the kingdom but does not understand it.... This is the seed that was sown beside the road. What was sown on rocky ground is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy....What was sown among the thorn plants, this is the person who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the deceitfulness of riches choke the word.... The seed that was sown on the good soil, this is the person who hears the word and understands it. (Matthew 13:19-23 ULB)
>Break up your unplowed ground,
> for it is time to seek Yahweh.... (Hosea 10:12 ULT)
>for it is time to seek Yahweh.... (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
#### SOWING represents actions or attitudes, and REAPING represents judgment or reward
#### SOWING or PLANTING represents actions or attitudes, and REAPING or GATHERING, represents judgment or reward
> Based on what I have observed, those who plow iniquity
> and sow trouble reap the same. (Job 4:8 ULT)
>According to what I have seen, those who plow iniquity
>and sow trouble reap it. (Job 4:8 ULB)
> Do not be deceived. God is not mocked. Whatever a man plants, that is what he will also harvest. For he who sows seed to his own sinful nature will harvest destruction, but he who sows seed to the Spirit, will harvest eternal life from the Spirit. (Galatians 6:7-8 ULT)
>Do not be deceived. God is not mocked, for whatever a man plants, that he will also gather in. For he who plants seed to his own sinful nature, from the sinful nature will gather destruction. The one who plants seed to the Spirit, from the spirit will gather in eternal life. (Galatians 6:7-8 ULB)
#### THRESHING and WINNOWING represent the separation of evil people from good people
After farmers harvest wheat and other types of grain, they bring them to a _threshing floor_, a flat place with hard ground, and have oxen pull heavy wheeled carts or sleds without wheels over the grain to _thresh_ it, to separate the usable grains from the useless chaff. Then they take large forks and _winnow_ the threshed grain by throwing it up in the air so the wind can carry off the chaff while the grains fall back to the threshing floor, where they can be gathered and used for food. (see *thresh* and *winnow* pages in [translationWords](https://unfoldingword.bible/tw/) for help translating "thresh" and "winnow")
After farmers harvest wheat and other types of grain, they bring them to a _threshing floor_, a flat place with hard ground, and have oxen pull heavy wheeled carts or sleds without wheels over the grain to _thresh_ it, to separate the usable grains from the useless chaff. Then they take large forks and _winnow_ the threshed grain by throwing it up in the air so the wind can carry off the chaff while the grains fall back to the threshing floor, where they can be gathered and used for food. (See the information in the translationWords document for help with translating "thresh" and "winnow.")
> So I will winnow them with a pitchfork at the gates of the land. I will bereave them. I will destroy my people since they will not turn from their ways. (Jeremiah 15:7 ULT)
>So I will winnow them with a pitchfork at the gates of the land. I will bereave them. I will destroy my people since they will not turn from their ways. (Jeremiah 15:7 ULB)
<blockquote> His winnowing fork is in his hand to thoroughly clear off his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse. But he will burn up the chaff with fire that can never be put out. (Luke 3:17 ULT)</blockquote>
> His winnowing fork is in his hand to thoroughly clear off his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse. But he will burn up the chaff with fire that can never be put out. (Luke 3:17 ULB)
#### GRAFTING represents God's allowing the Gentiles to become his people
> For if you were cut out of what is by nature a wild olive tree, and contrary to nature were grafted into a good olive tree, how much more will these Jews, who are the natural branches, be grafted back into their own olive tree? For I do not want you to be unaware, brothers, of this mystery, in order that you will not be wise in your own thinking. This mystery is that a partial hardening has occurred in Israel, until the completion of the Gentiles come in. (Romans 11:24-25 ULT)
>For if you were cut out of what is by nature a wild olive tree, and contrary to nature were grafted into a good olive tree, how much more will these, the natural branches, be grafted back into their own olive tree? For I do not want you to be uninformed, brothers, of this mystery, so that you may not be wise in your own thinking: A partial hardening has come upon Israel until the full number of the Gentiles comes in. (Romans 11:24-25 ULB)
#### RAIN represents God's gifts to his people
> ...he comes and rains righteousness on you. (Hosea 10:12 ULT)
>...he comes and rains righteousness on you. (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
<blockquote>For the land that drinks in the rain that often comes on it, and that gives birth to the plants useful to those for whom the land was worked—this is the land that receives a blessing from God. But if it bears thorns and thistles, it is worthless and is near to a curse. Its end is in burning. (Hebrews 6:7-8 ULT)</blockquote>
>For the land that drinks in the rain that often comes on it, and that gives birth to the plants useful to those for whom the land was worked—this is the land that receives a blessing from God. But if it bears thorns and thistles, it is worthless and is near to a curse. Its end is in burning. (Hebrews 6:7-8 ULB)
> So be patient, brothers, until the Lord's coming. See, the farmer awaits the valuable harvest from the ground. He is patiently waiting for it, until it receives the early and late rains. (James 5:7 ULT)
>Be patient, then, brothers, until the Lord's coming. See how the farmer waits for the precious fruit from the ground and he is patient about it, until it receives the early and late rains. (James 5:7 ULB)

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@ -5,143 +5,122 @@ Some images from the Bible involving body parts and human qualities are listed b
#### The BODY represents a group of people
> Now you are the body of Christ and individually members of it. (1 Corinthians 12:27 ULT)
>Now you are <u>the body</u> of Christ and individually members of it. (1 Corinthians 12:27 ULB)
<blockquote>Rather we will speak the truth in love and grow up in all ways into him who is the head, Christ. Christ joins the whole body of believers together—it is held together by every supporting ligament so that the whole body grows and builds itself up in love. (Ephesians 4:15-16 ULT) </blockquote>
>Instead, speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in every way into him who is the head, that is, Christ. Christ builds <u>the whole body</u>, and it is joined and held together by every supporting ligament, and when each part works together, that makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love. (Ephesians 4:15-16 ULB)
In these verses, the body of Christ represents the group of people who follow Christ.
#### The FACE represents someone's presence
>Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh's declaration—or tremble <u>before my face</u>? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULT)
>Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh's declaration—or tremble <u>before my face</u>? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULB)
To be before someone's face is to be in their presence, that is, to be with them.
#### The FACE represents someone's attention
> Every man of the house of Israel who takes his idols into his heart, or who puts the stumbling block of his iniquity <u>before his face</u>, and who then comes to a prophet—I, Yahweh, will answer him according to the number of his idols. (Ezekiel 14:4 ULT)
>Every man of the house of Israel who takes his idols into his heart, or who puts the stumbling block of his iniquity <u>before his face</u>, and who then comes to a prophet—I, Yahweh, will answer him according to the number of his idols. (Ezekiel 14:4 ULB)
To put something before one's face is to look at it intently or pay attention to it.
> Many <u>seek the face</u> of the ruler, (Proverbs 29:26 ULT)
>Many are those who <u>seek the face</u> of the ruler. (Proverbs 29:26 ULB)
If someone seeks another person's face, he hopes that the person will pay attention to him.
>Why do you <u>hide your face</u> and forget our affliction and our oppression? (Psalm 44:24 ULT)
>Why do you <u>hide your face</u> and forget our affliction and our oppression? (Psalm 44:24 ULB)
To hide one's face from someone is to ignore him.
#### The FACE represents surface
>The famine was over all <u>the face</u> of the whole land. (Genesis 41:56 ULT)
<blockquote> He encloses <u>the face</u> of the moon and spreads his clouds on it. (Job 26:9 ULT) </blockquote>
>The famine was over all <u>the face</u> of the whole land. (Genesis 41:56 ULB)
> They cover <u>the face</u> of the earth and they are right now next to me. (Numbers 22:5 ULB)
#### The HAND represents a person's agency or power
> Yahweh has burst through my enemies <u>by my hand</u> like a bursting flood of water. (1 Chronicles 14:11 ULT)
>God has burst through my enemies <u>by my hand</u> like a bursting flood of water. (1 Chronicles 14:11 ULB)
"Yahweh has burst through my enemies by my hand" means "Yahweh has used me to burst through my enemies."
><u>Your hand</u> will seize all your enemies; <u>your right hand</u> will seize those who hate you. (Psalm 21:8 ULT)
><u>Your hand</u> will seize all your enemies; <u>your right hand</u> will seize those who hate you. (Psalm 21:8 ULB)
"Your hand will seize all your enemies" means "By your power you will seize all your enemies."
>Look, <u>Yahweh's hand</u> is not so short that it cannot save. (Isaiah 59:1 ULT)
>Look, <u>Yahweh's hand</u> is not so short that it cannot save. (Isaiah 59:1 ULB)
"His hand is not short" means that he is not weak.
#### The HEAD represents the ruler, the one who has authority over others
>God has subjected all things under Christ's feet and has <u>made him the head</u> over all things in the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills all things in all ways. (Ephesians 1:22 ULT)
<blockquote>Wives should be subject to their own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is <u>the head</u> of the wife, as Christ also is <u>the head</u> of the church, and he is the Savior of the body. (Ephesian 5:22-23 ULT)</blockquote>
>God put all things under Christ's feet and gave him to the church as head over all things. (Ephesians 1:22 ULB)
>Wives, submit to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is <u>the head</u> of the wife, as Christ also is <u>the head</u> of the church, and Christ himself is its Savior. (Ephesians 5:22-23 ULB)
#### A MASTER represents anything that motivates someone to act
>No one can serve <u>two masters</u>, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULT)
>No one can serve <u>two masters</u>, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULB)
To serve God is to be motivated by God. To serve money is to be motivated by money.
#### A NAME represents the person who has that name
>May your God make <u>the name of Solomon</u> better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne." 1 Kings 1:47 (ULT)
<blockquote> See, I have sworn <u>by my great name</u>—says Yahweh. <u>My name</u> will no longer be called upon by the mouths of any of the men of Judah in all the land of Egypt…." (Jeremiah 44:26 ULT) </blockquote>
>May your God make <u>the name of Solomon</u> better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne." 1 Kings 1:47 (ULB)
> See, I have sworn <u>by my great name</u>—says Yahweh. <u>My name</u> will no longer be called upon by the mouths of any of the men of Judah in all the land of Egypt." (Jeremiah 44:26 ULB)
If someone's name is great, it means that he is great.
>Listen now to the prayer of your servant and to the prayer of your servants who delight to <u>honor your name</u>…. Nehemiah 1:11 (ULT)
>Yahweh, I beg you, listen now to the prayer of your servant and to the prayer of your servants who delight to <u>honor your name</u>. (Nehemiah 1:11 ULB)
To honor someone's name is to honor him.
#### A NAME represents the fame or reputation of a person
>You must no longer profane <u>my holy name</u> with your gifts and your idols. Ezekiel 20:39 (ULT)
>You must no longer profane <u>my holy name</u> with your gifts and your idols. (Ezekiel 20:39 ULB)
To profane God's name is to profane his reputation, that is, to profane how people think about him.
>For I will make <u>my great name</u> holy, which you have profaned among the nations…. Ezekiel 36:23 (ULT)
>For I will make <u>my great name</u> holy, which you have profaned among the nations. (Ezekiel 36:23 ULB)
To make God's name holy is to cause people to to see that God is holy.
>Your servants have come here from a land very far away, because of <u>the name</u> of Yahweh your God. We have heard a report about him and about everything that he did in Egypt (Joshua 9:9 ULT)
>Your servants have come here from a land very far away, because of <u>the name</u> of Yahweh your God. We have heard a report about him and about everything that he did in Egypt. (Joshua 9:9 ULB)
The fact that the men said they heard a report about Yahweh shows that "because of the name of Yahweh" means because of Yahweh's reputation.
#### The NOSE represents anger
>Then…the foundations of the world were exposed at your battle cry, Yahweh—at the blast of the breath of <u>your nostrils</u>. (Psalms 18:15 ULT)
>The foundations of the world were laid bare at your rebuke, Yahweh, at the blast of the breath of <u>your nostrils</u>. (Psalm 18:15 ULB)
>By the blast of <u>your nostrils</u> the waters were piled up. (Exodus 15:8 ULB)
<blockquote>By the blast of <u>your nostrils</u> the waters were piled up…. (Exodus 15:8 ULT)</blockquote>
>Smoke went up from out of <u>his nostrils</u>, and blazing fire came out of his mouth…. (2 Samuel 22:9 ULT)
<blockquote>…This is the Lord Yahweh's declaration: 'My fury will arise in <u>my nostrils</u>!' (Ezekiel 38:18 ULT)</blockquote>
>Smoke went up from out of <u>his nostrils</u>, and blazing fire came out of his mouth. (2 Samuel 22:9 ULB)
A blast of air or smoke coming from someone's nose shows his great anger.
#### RAISED EYES represents arrogance
> but you bring down those with <u>proud, uplifted eyes</u>! (Psalm 18:27 ULT)
>For you save afflicted people, but you bring down those with <u>proud, uplifted eyes</u>! (Psalm 18:27 ULB)
Uplifted eyes show that a person is proud.
> God humbles a proud man, and he saves the one with <u>lowered eyes</u>. (Job 22:29 ULT)
>God humbles a proud man, and he saves the one with <u>lowered eyes</u>. (Job 22:29 ULB)
Lowered eyes show that a person is humble.
#### The SON OF SOMETHING shares its qualities
> no <u>son of wickedness</u> will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22b ULT)
>No <u>son of wickedness</u> will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22 ULB)
A son of wickedness is a wicked person.
>May the groans of the prisoners come before you;
> with the greatness of your power keep the <u>children of death</u> alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULT)
>with the greatness of your power keep the <u>children of death</u> alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULB)
Children of death here are people whom others plan to kill.
Children of death here are people that others plan to kill.
>We all were once among these unbelievers and acted according to the evil desires of our flesh, doing the will of the flesh and of the mind, and we were by nature <u>children of wrath</u> like the others. (Ephesians 2:3 ULT)
>Once we all lived among these people, fulfilling the evil desires of our sinful nature, and carrying out the desires of the body and of the mind. We were by nature <u>children of wrath</u>, like the rest of humanity. (Ephesians 2:3 ULB)
Children of wrath here are people with whom God is very angry.

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving human behavior are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### BEING BENT OVER represents being discouraged
>Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are <u>bent over</u>. (Psalm 145:14 ULT)
>Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are <u>bent over</u>. (Psalm 145:14 ULB)
#### BIRTH PAINS represent the suffering that is necessary to achieve a new condition
><u>Be in pain and labor to give birth</u>, daughter of Zion, like a <u>woman in labor</u>.
>For now you will go out of the city, live in the field, and go to Babylon.
>There you will be rescued.
>There Yahweh will rescue you from the hand of your enemies. (Micah 4:10 ULT)
>There Yahweh will rescue you from the hand of your enemies. (Micah 4:10 ULB)
>For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. But all these things are only the beginning of <u>birth pains</u>. (Matthew 24:7-8 ULB)
<blockquote>For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. But all these things are only the beginning of <u>birth pains</u>. (Matthew 24:7-8 ULT)</blockquote>
>My little children, I am suffering <u>labor pains</u> for you again, until Christ will have been formed in you! (Galatians 4:19 ULT)
>My little children, again I am in the <u>pains of childbirth</u> for you until Christ is formed in you. (Galatians 4:19 ULB)
#### BEING CALLED SOMETHING represents being that thing
> The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he is called the God of the whole earth. (Isaiah 54:5b ULT)
>The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he <u>is called</u> the God of the whole earth. (Isaiah 54:5b ULB)
This is because he actually is the God of the whole earth.
>The one who is wise in heart is called discerning, (Proverbs 16:21a ULT)
>The one who is wise in heart <u>is called</u> discerning. (Proverbs 16:21a ULB)
This is because he actually is discerning.
>He will...be called the Son of the Most High. (Luke 1:32 ULT)
>He will ... <u>be called</u> the Son of the Most High. (Luke 1:32 ULB)
This is because he actually is the Son of the Most High.
>So the holy one to be born will be called the Son of God. (Luke 1:35 ULT)
>So the holy one to be born will <u>be called</u> the Son of God. (Luke 1:35 ULB)
This is because he actually is the Son of God.
>Every male that opens the womb will be called dedicated to the Lord. (Luke 2:23 ULT)
This is because he actually will be dedicated to the Lord.
#### CLEANLINESS represents being acceptable for God's purposes
Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the <u>clean</u> animals and some of the <u>clean</u> birds, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. Yahweh smelled the pleasing aroma... (Genesis 8:20 ULT)
>The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him <u>clean</u>. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 13:6 ULT)
>Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the <u>clean</u> animals and some of the <u>clean</u> birds, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. (Genesis 8:20 ULB)
>The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him <u>clean</u>. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 13:6 ULB)
#### CLEANSING or PURIFYING represents making something acceptable for God's Purposes
>He must go out to the altar that is before Yahweh and make atonement for it, and he must take some of the bull's blood and some of the goat's blood and put it on the horns of the altar all around. He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to <u>cleanse</u> it and dedicate it to Yahweh, away from the <u>unclean</u> actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULT)
<blockquote>This is because on this day atonement will be made for you, to <u>cleanse</u> you from all your sins so you will be <u>clean</u> before Yahweh. (Leviticus 16:30 ULT)</blockquote>
>He must go out to the altar.... He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to <u>cleanse</u> it and set it apart to Yahweh, away from the unclean actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULB)
>This is because on this day atonement will be made for you, to <u>cleanse</u> you from all your sins so you will be <u>clean</u> before Yahweh. (Leviticus 16:30 ULB)
#### UNCLEANLINESS represents not being acceptable for God's purposes
>You may eat any animal that has a split hoof and that also chews the cud. However, some animals either chew the cud or have a split hoof, and <u>you must not eat them</u>, animals such as the camel, because it chews the cud but does not have a split hoof. So the camel is <u>unclean</u> for you. (Leviticus 11:3-4 ULT)
<blockquote>And if any of them dies and falls on anything, that thing will be <u>unclean</u>, whether it is made of wood, cloth, leather, or sackcloth. Whatever it is and whatever it is used for, it must be put into water; it will be <u>unclean</u> until evening. Then it will be <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 11:32 ULT) </blockquote>
>You may eat any animal that has a split hoof and that also chews the cud. However, some animals either chew the cud or have a split hoof, and <u>you must not eat them</u>, animals such as the camel, because it chews the cud but does not have a split hoof. So the camel is <u>unclean</u> to you. (Leviticus 11:3-4 ULB)
>If any of them dies and falls on anything, that thing will be <u>unclean</u>, whether it is made of wood, cloth, leather, or sackcloth. Whatever it is and whatever it is used for, it must be put into water; it will be <u>unclean</u> until evening. Then it will be <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 11:32 ULB)
#### MAKING SOMETHING UNCLEAN represents making it unacceptable for God's purposes.
> Or if anyone touches anything God has designated as <u>unclean</u>, whether it be the carcass of an <u>unclean</u> wild animal or the carcass of any livestock that has died, or creeping animal, even if the person did not intend to touch it, he is <u>unclean</u> and <u>guilty</u>. (Leviticus 5:2 ULT)
>Or if anyone touches anything God has designated as <u>unclean</u>, whether it be the carcass of an <u>unclean</u> wild animal or the carcass of any <u>unclean</u> livestock or <u>unclean</u> creatures that move along the ground, even though he was not aware of what he had done, he has become <u>unclean</u> and is guilty. (Leviticus 5:2 ULB)
#### BEING CUT OFF FROM SOMETHING represents being separated from it
>Uzziah, the king, was a leper to the day of his death, and lived in a separate house, since he was a leper; for he was <u>cut off from the house of Yahweh.</u> (2 Chronicles 26:21 ULT)
>Uzziah, the king, was a leper to the day of his death and lived in a separate house since he was a leper, for he <u>was cut off from the house of Yahweh</u>. (2 Chronicles 26:21 ULB)
#### BEING CUT OFF represents being killed
>So you must keep the Sabbath, for it must be treated by you as holy, reserved for him. Everyone who defiles it must surely <u>be put to death</u>. Whoever works on the Sabbath, that person must surely <u>be cut off from his people</u>. (Exodus 31:14-15 ULT)
>So you must keep the Sabbath, for it must be treated by you as holy, reserved for him. Everyone who defiles it must surely <u>be put to death</u>. Whoever works on the Sabbath, that person must surely <u>be cut off from his people</u>. (Exodus 31:14-15 ULB)
>Whoever does not humble himself on that day must be <u>cut off from his people</u>. Whoever does any work on that day, <u>I, Yahweh, will destroy him</u> from among his people. (Leviticus 23:29-30 ULB)
<blockquote>Whoever does not humble himself on that day must be <u>cut off from his people</u>. Whoever does any work on that day, <u>I, Yahweh, will destroy him</u> from among his people. (Leviticus 23:29-30 ULT) </blockquote>
>But he was <u>cut off</u> from the land of the living. (Isaiah 53:8 ULT)
>But he was <u>cut off</u> from the land of the living. (Isaiah 53:8 ULB)
#### COMING AND STANDING BEFORE SOMEONE represents serving him
<blockquote>How blessed are your people, and how blessed are your servants who constantly <u>stand before you</u>, because they hear your wisdom. (1 Kings 10:8 ULT)</blockquote>
>How blessed are your wives, and how blessed are your servants who constantly <u>stand before you</u>, because they hear your wisdom. (1 Kings 10:8 ULB)
>Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness <u>come before you</u>. (Psalm 89:14 ULT)
>Steadfast love and faithfulness <u>come before you</u>. (Psalm 89:14 ULB)
Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness are also personified here. (see [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
Steadfast love and faithfulness are also personified here. (see [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
#### DRUNKENNESS represents suffering, and WINE represents judgment
#### DRUNKENNESS represents suffering and WINE represents judgment
Too much wine makes a person weak, and he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God's judgment.
Too much wine makes a person weak and he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God's judgment.
>You have made your people see difficult things;
>you have made us <u>drink the wine of staggering</u>. (Psalm 60:3 ULB)
>You have shown your people severe things;
>you have made us <u>drink the wine of staggering</u>. (Psalm 60:3 ULT)
Another example from Psalm.
>But God is the judge;
>he brings one down and raises up another.
>For Yahweh holds a cup in his hand of <u>foaming wine</u>,
>he brings down and he lifts up.
>For Yahweh holds in his hand a cup of <u>foaming wine</u>,
>which is mixed with spices, and pours it out.
>Surely all the wicked of the earth will <u>drink it</u> to the last drop. (Psalm 75:8 ULT)
An example from Revelation.
>he also will drink the <u>wine</u> of God's wrath, the <u>wine</u> that has been prepared and poured unmixed into the cup of his anger. (Revelation 14:10 ULT)
>Surely all the wicked of the earth will <u>drink it</u> to the last drop. (Psalm 75:8 ULB)
>He will also drink some of the <u>wine</u> of God's wrath, the <u>wine</u> that has been poured undiluted into the cup of his anger. (Revelation 14:10 ULB)
#### EATING UP represents destroying
>God brings [Israel] out of Egypt.
>He has strength like a wild ox.
>God will bring [Israel] out of Egypt.
>He will have strength like a wild ox.
><u>He will eat up the nations who fight against him</u>.
>He will break their bones to pieces.
>He will shoot them with his arrows. Numbers 24:8 ULT)
>He will shoot them with his arrows. (Numbers 24:8 ULB)
Another word for "eat up" is devour.
>Therefore as <u>the tongue of fire devours stubble</u>, and as the dry grass goes down in flame,
>so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust, (Isaiah 5:24 ULT)
>so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust. (Isaiah 5:24 ULB)
Another example from Isaiah.
>Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him, Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies,
>Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies,
>the Arameans on the east, and the Philistines on the west.
><u>They will devour Israel with open mouth</u>. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULT)
><u>They will devour Israel with open mouth</u>. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULB)
An example from Deuteronomy.
>I will make my arrows drunk with blood,
>and <u>my sword will devour flesh</u>
>with the blood of the killed and the captives,
>and from the heads of the leaders of the enemy. (Deuteronomy 32:42 ULT)
>and from the heads of the leaders of the enemy. (Deuteronomy 32:42 ULB)
#### FALLING UPON or BEING UPON represents affecting
<blockquote>Yahweh God caused a deep sleep to <u>fall upon</u> the man, so the man slept. (Genesis 2:21 ULT)</blockquote>
>Yahweh God caused a deep sleep to <u>fall upon</u> the man, so the man slept. (Genesis 2:21 ULB)
>Will not his majesty terrify you,
>and the dread of him <u>fall upon</u> you? (Job 13:11 ULB)
>Would not his majesty make you afraid?
>Would not his dread <u>fall upon</u> you? (Job 13:11 ULT)
<blockquote>Then the Spirit of Yahweh <u>fell on me</u> and he said to me… (Ezekiel 11:5 ULT)</blockquote>
> Now look, the hand of the Lord <u>is upon you</u>, and you will become blind. (Acts 13:11 ULT)
>Then the Spirit of Yahweh <u>fell on me</u> and he said for me to say ... (Ezekiel 11:5 ULB)
>Now look, the hand of the Lord <u>is upon you</u>, and you will become blind. (Acts 13:11 ULB)
#### FOLLOWING SOMEONE represents being loyal to him
>They broke away from Yahweh, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt. <u>They went after other gods</u>, the very gods of the peoples who were around them, and they bowed down to them. They provoked Yahweh to anger because they broke away from Yahweh and worshiped Baal and the Ashtoreths.
>They broke away from Yahweh, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt. <u>They went after other gods</u>, the very gods of the peoples who were around them, and they bowed down to them. They provoked Yahweh to anger because they broke away from Yahweh and worshiped Baal and the Ashtoreths. (Judges 2:12-13 ULB)
>For Solomon <u>followed</u> Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and <u>he followed</u> Molech, the disgusting idol of the Ammonites. (1 Kings 11:5 ULB)
<blockquote>For Solomon <u>followed</u> Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and <u>he followed</u> Milcom, the disgusting idol of the Ammonites. (1 Kings 11:5 ULT)</blockquote>
>Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. <u>He has followed me fully</u>; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULB)
>Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. <u>He has followed me fully</u>; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULT)
#### GOING BEFORE, ACCOMPANYING, OR FOLLOWING A KING WITH HIS OTHER ATTENDANTS represents serving him
>See, his reward is <u>with him</u>, and his recompense is <u>going before him</u>. (Isaiah 62:11 ULT)
<blockquote>Righteousness will <u>go before him</u> and make a way for his footsteps. (Psalm 85:13 ULT)</blockquote>
#### INHERITING is permanently possessing something
#### INHERITING represents permanently possessing something
>Then the King will say to those on his right hand, "Come, you who have been blessed by my Father, <u>inherit</u> the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world." (Matthew 25:34)
The blessing of God's complete rule is given as the permanent possession to those to whom the King is speaking.
>Now this I say, brothers and sisters, that flesh and blood cannot <u>inherit</u> the kingdom of God. Neither does what is perishable <u>inherit</u> what is imperishable. (1 Corinthians 15:50 ULT)
>Now this I say, brothers, that flesh and blood cannot <u>inherit</u> the kingdom of God. Neither does what is perishable <u>inherit</u> what is imperishable. (1 Corinthians 15:50 ULB)
People cannot receive the kingdom of God in its complete form as a permanent possession while they are still in their mortal bodies.
An **INHERITANCE** is something that someone permanently possesses
An **INHERITANCE** represents something that someone permanently possesses
>You will bring them and plant them on the mountain of your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 15:17 ULT)
>You will bring them and plant them on the mountain of your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 15:17 ULB)
The mountain where God will be worshiped is viewed as his permanent possession.
>Pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us as your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 34:9 ULT)
>Pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us as your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 34:9 ULB)
Moses asks God to still accept the people of Israel as his special possession, that is, as the people permanently belonging to him.
>the richness of the glory of his <u>inheritance</u> among those who are set apart for him. (Ephesians 1:18 ULT)
>... the richness of his glorious <u>inheritance</u> among all God's holy people. (Ephesians 1:18 ULB)
The wonderful things that God will give all who are set apart for him is viewed as their permanent possession.
An **HEIR** is someone who permanently possesses something
An **HEIR** represents someone who is given something to possess forever
>For it was not through the law that the promise was given to Abraham and to his descendants, this promise that they would be <u>heirs</u> of the world. (Romans 4:13 ULT)
> so that having been justified by his grace, we might become <u>heirs</u> having the hope of eternal life. (Titus 3:7 ULB)
The promise was that Abraham and his descendants would permanently possess the entire world.
>God has spoken to us by a Son, whom he appointed to be the <u>heir</u> of all things. (Hebrews 1:2 ULT)
God's Son will receive all things as a permanent possession.
>It was by faith that Noah...condemned the world and became an <u>heir</u> of the righteousness that comes through faith. (Hebrews 11:7 ULT)
Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
>Listen, my beloved brothers, did not God choose the poor of the world to be rich in faith and to be <u>heirs</u> of the kingdom that he promised to those who love him? (James 2:5 ULB)
>It was by faith that Noah...condemned the world and became an <u>heir</u> of the righteousness that is according to faith. (Hebrews 11:7 ULB)
#### LYING DOWN represents DYING
<blockquote>When your days are fulfilled and you <u>lie down with your fathers</u>, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12 ULT)</blockquote>
>Ask them, 'Are you really more beautiful than anyone else? <u>Go down and lie</u> with the uncircumcised!'
>They will fall among those who were killed by the sword! Egypt is given to the sword; her enemies will seize her and her servants! (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULT)
>When your days are fulfilled and you <u>lie down with your fathers</u>, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12 ULB)
>[Ask them,] 'Are you really more beautiful than anyone else? <u>Go down and lie down</u> with the uncircumcised!'
>They will fall among those who were killed by the sword! [Egypt] is given to the sword; [her enemies] will seize her and her multitudes! (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULB)
#### REIGNING OR RULING represents controlling
>This happened so that, as sin <u>ruled</u> in death, even so grace might <u>rule</u> through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULT)
<blockquote>Therefore do not let sin <u>rule</u> in your mortal body in order that you obey its lusts. (Romans 6:12 ULT)</blockquote>
>This happened so that, as sin <u>ruled</u> in death, even so grace might <u>rule</u> through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULB)
>Therefore do not let sin <u>rule</u> in your mortal body in order that you obey its lusts. (Romans 6:12 ULB)
#### RESTING or a RESTING PLACE represents a permanent beneficial situation
>Naomi her mother-in-law said to her, "My daughter, should I not seek a place for you to <u>rest</u>, so that things may go well for you?" (Ruth 3:1 ULT)
>Naomi her mother-in-law said to her, "My daughter, should I not seek a place for you to <u>rest</u>, so that things may go well for you?" (Ruth 3:1 ULB)
<blockquote>Therefore I vowed in my anger that they would never enter into my <u>resting place</u>. (Psalm 95:11 ULT)</blockquote>
>Therefore I vowed in my anger that they would never enter into my <u>resting place</u>. (Psalm 95:11 ULB)
>This is my <u>resting place</u> forever; I will live here, for I desire her [Zion]. (Psalm 132:14 ULT)
<blockquote>The nations will seek him out, and his <u>resting place</u> will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10 ULT)</blockquote>
>This is my <u>resting place</u> forever; I will live here, for I desire [Zion]. (Psalm 132:14 ULB)
>The nations will seek him out, and his <u>resting place</u> will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10 ULB)
#### RISING, STANDING UP represents acting
><u>Rise up</u> for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULT)
><u>Rise up</u> for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULB)
#### SEEING SOMETHING represents being there
>You will not let the one who has covenant faithfulness <u>see</u> the pit. (Psalm 16:10 ULT)
>You will not let your faithful one <u>see</u> the pit. (Psalm 16:10 ULB)
#### SELLING represents handing over to someone's control. BUYING represents removing from someone's control
>[Yahweh] <u>sold</u> [the Israelites] into the hand of Cushan Rishathaim king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8 ULT)
>[Yahweh] <u>sold</u> [the Israelites] into the hand of Cushan-Rishathaim king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8 ULB)
#### SITTING is ruling
#### SITTING IS RULING
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David's tent will faithfully <u>sit</u> there. ( Isaiah 16:5 ULT)
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness; and one from David's tent will faithfully <u>sit</u> there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULB)
#### STANDING represents successfully resisting
>So the wicked will not <u>stand</u> in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:2 ULT)
>Hear, Israel; you are about to cross over the Jordan today, to go in to dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourself, and cities that are great and fortified up to heaven, a people great and tall, the sons of the Anakim, whom you know, and of whom you have heard people say, 'Who can <u>stand</u> before the sons of Anak?' (Deuteronomy 9:1-2 ULB)
>Who can <u>stand</u> before his wrath? Who can resist the fierceness of his anger?
>His wrath is poured out like fire, and the rocks are broken apart by him. (Nahum 1:6 ULB)
#### WALKING represents behaving and PATH (WAY) represents behavior
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. Psalm 1:1 ULT)
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULB)
>For Yahweh approves of the <u>way</u> of the righteous. (Psalm 1:6 ULB)
<blockquote>For Yahweh approves of the <u>way</u> of the righteous. (Psalm 1:6 ULT)</blockquote>
>Turn from me the <u>path</u> of deceit. (Psalm 119:29 ULB)
>Turn from me the <u>path</u> of deceit. (Psalm 119:28 ULT)
<blockquote>I will run in the <u>path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULT)</blockquote>
>I will run in the <u>path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULB)

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving man-made objects are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### BRONZE represents strength
>He trains…my arms to bend a bow of <u>bronze</u>. Psalm 18:34 ULT)
>He trains ... my arms to bend a bow of <u>bronze</u>. Psalm 18:34 ULB)
#### CHAINS represent control
>Let us tear off the <u>shackles</u> they put on us and throw off their <u>chains</u>. Psalm 2:3
#### CLOTHING represents moral qualities (emotions, attitudes, spirit, life)
>It is God who puts strength on me like a <u>belt</u>. (Psalm 18:32 ULT)
>It is God who puts strength on me like a <u>belt</u>. (Psalm 18:32 ULB)
>Righteousness will be the <u>belt of his waist</u>, and faithfulness the <u>belt around his hips</u>. (Isaiah 11:5 ULB)
<blockquote>Righteousness will be the <u>belt of his waist</u>, and faithfulness the <u>belt around his hips</u>. (Isaiah 11:5 ULT)</blockquote>
>May my adversaries be <u>clothed with shame</u>; may they <u>wear their shame like a robe</u>. (Psalm 109:29 ULT)
<blockquote>I will <u>clothe his enemies with shame</u>. (Psalm 132:18 ULT)</blockquote>
>May my adversaries be <u>clothed with shame</u>; may they <u>wear their shame like a robe</u>. (Psalm 109:29 ULB)
>I will <u>clothe his enemies with shame</u>. (Psalm 132:18 ULB)
#### A SNARE (A LIGHT TRAP FOR BIRDS WORKED BY CORDS) represents death
>For he will rescue you from the <u>snare</u> of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3 ULT)
>For he will rescue you from the <u>snare</u> of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3 ULB)
>The <u>cords of death</u> surrounded me, and the <u>snares</u> of sheol confronted me. (Psalm 116:3 ULB)
<blockquote>The <u>cords of death</u> surrounded me, and the <u>snares</u> of sheol confronted me. (Psalm 116:3 ULT)</blockquote>
>The <u>cords of the wicked</u> have <u>ensnared</u> me. (Psalm 119:61 ULB)
>The wicked have <u>set a snare</u> for me. (Psalm 119:110 ULB)
>The <u>cords of the wicked</u> have <u>ensnared</u> me. (Psalm 119:61 ULT)
>The wicked is <u>ensnared</u> by his own actions. (Psalm 9:16 ULB)
<blockquote>The wicked have <u>set a snare</u> for me. (Psalm 119:110 ULT)</blockquote>
>The wicked is <u>ensnared</u> by his own actions. (Psalm 9:16 ULT)
>They mingled with the nations and learned their ways and worshiped their idols, which became <u>a snare</u> to them. (Psalm 106:35-36 ULT)
>They mingled with the nations and learned their ways and worshiped their idols, which became <u>a snare</u> to them. (Psalm 106:35-36 ULB)
In this case the snare was a persuasion to do evil, which leads to death.
#### A TENT represents a house, home, people in one's home, descendants
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will take you up and pluck you out of your tent. (Psalm 52:5 ULT)
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will take you up and pluck you out of your tent. (Psalm 52:5 ULB)
>The house of wicked people will be destroyed, but the tent of upright people will flourish. (Proverbs 14:11 ULB)
<blockquote>The house of the wicked will be destroyed, but the tent of the upright will flourish. (Proverbs 14:11 ULT)</blockquote>
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David's tent will faithfully sit there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULT)
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David's tent will faithfully sit there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULB)

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This page discusses ideas that are paired together in limited ways. (For a discussion of more complex pairings, see [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).*)
### Description
In all languages, most **metaphors** come from broad patterns of pairings of ideas in which one idea represents another. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing __height__ with "much" and pairing __being low__ with "not much," so that __height__ represents "much" and __being low__ represents "not much." This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is __high__, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone __up__. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone __down__.
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere.
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of <u>walking</u> with "behaving" and <u>a path</u> with a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1 the walking in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked (Psalm 1:1 ULT)
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of <u>walking</u> with "behaving" and <u>a path</u> with a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1 walking in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULB)
This pattern is also seen in Psalm 119:32 where running in the path of God's commands represents doing what God commands. Since running is more intense than walking, the idea of running here might give the idea of doing this whole-heartedly.
> I will <u>run in the path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULT)
>I will <u>run in the path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULB)
#### Reasons this is a translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
These patterns present three challenges to anyone who wants to identify them:
1. When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, it is God who puts strength on me like a belt. (Psalm 18:32 ULT) is based on the pairing of clothing with moral quality. In this case, the image of a belt represents strength. (see "Clothing represents a moral quality" in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md))
####Determining whether or not there are paired ideas
When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether "lamp" refers concretely to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether "lamp" is an image that represents life. (see "FIRE or LAMP represents life" in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md)) In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary lamp. In 2 Samuel 21:17 the lamp of Israel represents King David's life. When his men were concerned that he might "put out the lamp of Israel," they were concerned that he might be killed.
1. When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether "lamp" refers concretely to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether "lamp" is an image that represents life. (see "FIRE or LAMP represents life" in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md))
>Solomon also had made the cups, <u>lamp</u> trimmers, basins, spoons, and incense burners, all of which were all made of pure gold. (1 Kings 7:50 ULB)
In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary lamp. In 2 Samuel 21:17 the lamp of Israel represents King David's life. When his men were concerned that he might "put out the lamp of Israel" they were concerned that he might be killed.
>Ishbi-Benob...intended to kill David. But Abishai son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp</u> of Israel." (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULB)
<blockquote>The cups, <u>lamp</u> trimmers, basins, spoons, and incense burners were all made of pure gold. (1 Kings 7:50 ULT)</blockquote>
####Identifying paired ideas
When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, "It is God who puts strength on me like a belt" (Psalm 18:32 ULB) is based on the pairing of clothing with moral quality. In this case, the image of a belt represents strength. (see "Clothing represents a moral quality" in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md))
>Ishbibenob...intended to kill David. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp</u> of Israel." (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULT)
1. Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with—and in some cases are based on—common metonymies and cultural models. (see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md))
####Identifying combinations of paired ideas
Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with—and in some cases are based on—common metonymies and cultural models. (see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](bita-part2) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md))
For example, in 2 Samuel 14:7 below, "the burning coal" is an image for the life of the son, who represents what will cause people to remember his father. So there are two patterns of pairings here: the pairing of the burning coal with the life of the son, and the pairing of the son with the memory of his father.
>They say, 'Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out <u>the burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for <u>my husband neither name nor descendant</u> on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
>They say, 'Give into our hand the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out <u>the burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for <u>my husband neither name nor descendant</u> on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULB)
#### Links to Lists of Images in the Bible
### Links to Lists of Images in the Bible
The following pages have lists of some of the ideas that represent others in the Bible, together with examples from the Bible. They are organized according to the kinds of image:
* [Biblical Imagery - Body Parts and Human Qualities](../bita-hq/01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Body Parts and Human Qualities](../bita-hq//01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Human Behavior](../bita-humanbehavior/01.md) - Includes both physical and non-physical actions, conditions and experiences
* [Biblical Imagery - Plants](../bita-plants/01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md)

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### Description
Some common metonymies from the Bible are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### A CUP or bowl represents what is in it
> my <u>cup</u> runs over. (Psalm 23:5 ULT)
>My <u>cup</u> runs over. (Psalm 23:5 ULB)
There is so much in the cup that it runs over the top of the cup.
> For every time you eat this bread and drink this <u>cup</u>, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (1 Corinthians 11:26 ULT)
>For every time you eat this bread and drink this <u>cup</u>, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (1 Corinthians 11:26 ULB)
People do not drink cups. They drink what is in the cup.
#### The MOUTH represents speech or words
#### The MOUTH, LIPS, or TONGUE represents speech or words
>A fool's <u>mouth</u> is his ruin. (Proverbs 18:7 ULT)
>A fool's <u>mouth</u> is his ruin, and he ensnares himself with his <u>lips</u>. (Proverbs 18:7 ULB)
<blockquote>Oh, how I would encourage you with my <u>mouth</u>! (Job 16:5 ULT) </blockquote>
>The words of one who speaks rashly are like the thrusts of a sword, but the <u>tongue</u> of the wise brings healing. (Proverbs 12:18)
>I heard you when you boasted against me with your <u>mouth</u>; you said many things against me. I heard them. (Ezekiel 35:13 ULT)
>Oh, how I would encourage you with my <u>mouth</u>! (Job 16:5 ULB)
>I heard you when you boasted against me with your <u>mouth</u>; you said many things against me. I heard them. (Ezekiel 35:13 ULB)
In these examples the mouth refers to what a person says.
In these examples the mouth, lips, and tongue refer to what a person says.
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON represents his descendants
The memory of a person represents his descendants, because they are the ones who should remember and honor him. When the Bible says that someone's memory dies, it means that either he will not have any descendants, or his descendants will all die.
>You terrified the nations with your battle cry;
>You rebuked the nations;
>you have destroyed the wicked;
>you have blotted out <u>their memory</u> forever.
>you have blotted out their name forever.
>The enemy crumbled like ruins
>when you overthrew their cities.
>All <u>remembrance of them</u> has perished. (Psalm 9:5-6 ULT)
>All <u>remembrance of them</u> has perished. (Psalm 9:5-6 ULB)
<blockquote> <u>His memory</u> will perish from the earth (Job 18:17 ULT) </blockquote>
>Yahweh is against evildoers,
>in order to wipe out <u>their memory</u> from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULT)
> His roots will be dried up beneath; above will his branch be cut off. <u>His memory</u> will perish from the earth. (Job 18:16-17 ULB)
>The face of Yahweh is against those who do evil,
>to cut off <u>the memory of them</u> from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULB)
#### ONE PERSON represents a group of people
>For <u>the wicked person</u> boasts of his deepest desires;
>he blesses the greedy and insults Yahweh. (Psalm 10:3 ULT)
>he blesses the greedy and insults Yahweh. (Psalm 10:3 ULB)
This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in general.
@ -52,29 +53,28 @@ This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in gener
>Gad—raiders will attack him, but he will attack them at their heels.
>Asher's food will be rich, and he will provide royal delicacies.
>Naphtali is a doe let loose; he will have beautiful fawns. (Genesis 49:19-21 ULT)
>Naphtali is a doe let loose; he will have beautiful fawns. (Genesis 49:19-21 ULB)
The names Gad, Asher, and Naphtali refer not only to those men, but to their descendants.
#### A PERSON represents himself and the people with him
>It came about that when Abram entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULT)
>It came about that when Abram entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULB)
Here when it says "Abram" it represents Abram and all the people traveling with him. The focus was on Abram.
#### PIERCING represents killing
> His hand <u>pierced</u> the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13 ULT)
>His hand <u>pierced</u> the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13 ULB)
This means that he killed the serpent.
> Look, he is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, including those who <u>pierced</u> him. (Revelation 1:7 ULT)
>Look, he is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, including those who <u>pierced</u> him. (Revelation 1:7 ULB)
"Those who pierced him" refers to those who killed Jesus.
#### SINS (INIQUITY) represent punishment for those sins
>Yahweh has placed on him the <u>iniquity</u> of us all (Isaiah 53:6 ULT)
>Yahweh has placed on him the <u>iniquity</u> of us all. (Isaiah 53:6 ULB)
This means that Yahweh placed on him the punishment that should have gone to all of us.

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@ -10,131 +10,119 @@ Some cultural models, or mental pictures, found in the Bible are listed below. F
Although the Bible explicitly denies that God is a human being, he is often spoken of as doing things that humans do. But God is not human, so when the Bible says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when it says something about him doing something with his hand, we should not think that he has a physical hand.
>If we hear <u>the voice of Yahweh our God</u> any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULT)
>If we hear <u>the voice of Yahweh our God</u> any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULB)
<blockquote>I have been strengthened by <u>the hand of Yahweh my God</u> (Ezra 7:28 ULT)</blockquote>
>I have been strengthened by <u>the hand of Yahweh my God</u>. (Ezra 7:28 ULB)
><u>The hand of God</u> also came on Judah, to give them one heart to carry out the command of the king and leaders by the word of Yahweh (2 Chronicles 30:12 ULT)
><u>The hand of God</u> also came on Judah, to give them one heart, to carry out the command of the king and leaders by the word of Yahweh. (2 Chronicles 30:12 ULB)
The word "hand" here is a metonym that refers to God's power. (See: [Metonymy](../figs-metonymy/01.md))
#### God is modeled as a KING
> For God is the <u>King</u> over all the earth; (Psalm 47:7 ULT)
>For God is the <u>King</u> over all the earth. (Psalm 47:7 ULB)
>For the <u>kingdom</u> is Yahweh's;
>he is the <u>ruler</u> over the nations. (Psalm 22:28 ULT)
>he is the <u>ruler</u> over the nations. (Psalm 22:28 ULB)
>Your <u>throne</u>, God, is forever and ever;
>a <u>scepter</u> of justice is the scepter of your <u>kingdom</u>. (Psalm 45:6 ULT)
>a <u>scepter</u> of justice is the scepter of your <u>kingdom</u>. (Psalm 45:6 ULB)
>This is what Yahweh says,
>"Heaven is my <u>throne</u>, and the earth is my <u>footstool</u>. (Isaiah 66:1 ULT)
>"Heaven is my <u>throne</u>, and the earth is my <u>footstool</u>. (Isaiah 66:1 ULB)
>God <u>reigns</u> over the nations;
>God sits on his holy <u>throne</u>.
>The <u>princes</u> of the peoples have gathered together
>to the people of the God of Abraham;
>for the <u>shields</u> of the earth belong to God;
>he is greatly exalted. (Psalm 47:8-9 ULT)
>God sits on his holy <u>throne</u>. (Psalm 47:8 ULB)
#### God is modeled as a SHEPHERD and his people are modeled as SHEEP
> Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
>Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
His people are sheep.
> For he is our God, and we are the people of <u>his pasture</u> and the <u>sheep of his hand</u>. (Psalm 95:7 ULT)
>For he is our God, and we are the people of <u>his pasture</u> and the <u>sheep of his hand</u>. (Psalm 95:7 ULB)
He leads his people like sheep.
>He led his own people out <u>like sheep</u> and guided them through the wilderness <u>like a flock</u>. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
>He led his own people out <u>like sheep</u> and guided them through the wilderness <u>like a flock</u>. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
He is willing to die in order to save his sheep.
> I am the good shepherd, and I know my own, and my own know me. The Father knows me, and I know the Father, and <u>I lay down my life for the sheep</u>. I have other sheep that are not of this fold. Those, also, I must bring, and they will hear my voice so that there will be one flock and one shepherd. (John 10:14-15 ULT)
>I am the good shepherd, and I know my own, and my own know me. The Father knows me, and I know the Father, and <u>I lay down my life for the sheep</u>. I have other sheep that are not of this sheep pen. I must bring them also, and they will hear my voice so that there will be one flock and one shepherd. (John 10:14-15 ULB)
#### God is modeled as a WARRIOR
>Yahweh is a <u>warrior</u>; (Exodus 15:3 ULT)
>Yahweh is a <u>warrior</u>. (Exodus 15:3 ULB)
> Yahweh will go out as a <u>warrior</u>; he will proceed as a <u>man of war</u>. He will stir up his zeal.
> He will shout, yes, he will roar his <u>battle cries</u>; he will <u>show his enemies his power</u>. (Isaiah 42:13 ULT)
>Yahweh will go out as a <u>warrior</u>; as a <u>man of war</u> he will stir up his zeal.
>He will shout, yes, he will roar his <u>battle cries</u>; he will <u>show his enemies his power</u>. (Isaiah 42:13 ULB)
>Your right hand, Yahweh, is <u>glorious in power</u>;
>your right hand, Yahweh, <u>has shattered the enemy</u>. (Exodus 15:6 ULT)
>your right hand, Yahweh, <u>has shattered the enemy</u>. (Exodus 15:6 ULB)
>But <u>God will shoot them</u>;
>suddenly they will be <u>wounded with his arrows</u>. (Psalm 65:7 ULT)
>suddenly they will be <u>wounded with his arrows</u>. (Psalm 64:7 ULB)
<blockquote>For you will turn them back; <u>you will draw your bow</u> before them. (Psalm 21:12 ULT)</blockquote>
>For you will turn them back; <u>you will draw your bow</u> before them. (Psalm 21:12 ULB)
#### A leader is modeled as a SHEPHERD and those he leads are modeled as SHEEP
>Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, "Look...when Saul was king over us, it was you who led the Israelite army. Yahweh said to you, 'You will <u>shepherd</u> my people Israel, and you will become ruler over Israel.' " (2 Samuel 5:1-2 ULT)
>Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, "Look...when Saul was king over us, it was you who led the Israelite army. Yahweh said to you, 'You will <u>shepherd</u> my people Israel, and you will become ruler over Israel.' " (2 Samuel 5:1-2 ULB)
<blockquote> "Woe to the <u>shepherds</u> who destroy and scatter the <u>sheep</u> of my <u>pasture</u>—this is Yahweh's declaration." (Jeremiah 23:1 ULT)</blockquote>
> "Woe to the <u>shepherds</u> who destroy and scatter the <u>sheep</u> of my <u>pasture</u>—this is Yahweh's declaration." (Jeremiah 23:1 ULB)
>Therefore be careful about yourselves, and about all the <u>flock</u> of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to <u>shepherd</u> the assembly of the Lord, which he purchased with his own blood. 29I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will enter in among you, and not spare the <u>flock</u>. I know that from even among your own selves some men shall come and say corrupt things, in order to draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULT)
>Therefore be careful about yourselves, and about all the <u>flock</u> of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to <u>shepherd</u> the church of God, which he purchased with his own blood. I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will come in among you and will not spare the <u>flock</u>. I know that from even among you some men shall come and distort the truth, in order to draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULB)
#### The eye is modeled as a LAMP
Variations of this model and the model of the EVIL EYE are found in many parts of the world. In most of the cultures represented in the Bible, these models included the following elements:
People see objects, not because of light around the object, but because of light that shines from their eyes onto those objects.
>The eye is the <u>lamp</u> of the body. Therefore, if your eye is good, the whole body is <u>filled with light</u>. (Matthew 6:22 ULT)
>The eye is the <u>lamp</u> of the body. Therefore, if your eye is good, the whole body is <u>filled with light</u>. (Matthew 6:22 ULB)
This light shining from the eyes carries with itself the viewer's character.
>The appetite of the wicked craves evil; his neighbor sees no <u>kindness in his eyes</u>. (Proverbs 21:10 ULT)
>The appetite of the wicked craves evil; his neighbor finds no <u>favor in his eyes</u>. (Proverbs 21:10 ULB)
#### Envy and cursing are modeled as looking with an EVIL EYE at someone, and favor is modeled as looking with a GOOD EYE at someone
The primary emotion of a person with the evil eye is envy. The Greek word translated as "envy" in Mark 7 is "eye," which refers here to an evil eye.
>He said, "It is that which comes out of the person that defiles him. For from within a person, out of the heart, proceed evil thoughts…, <u>envy</u> …. (Mark 7:20-22 ULT)
The context for Matthew 20:15 includes the emotion of envy. "Is your eye evil?" means "Are you envious?"
>Is it not legitimate for me to do what I wish with my own possessions? Or is your <u>eye evil</u> because I am good? (Matthew 20:15 ULT)
>He said, "It is that which comes out of the person that defiles him. For from within a person, out of the heart, proceed evil thoughts..., <u>envy</u>.... (Mark 7:20-22 ULB)
If a person's eye is evil, that person is envious of other people's money.
>The eye is the lamp of the body. Therefore, if your <u>eye is good</u>, the whole body is filled with light. But if your <u>eye is bad</u>, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. <u>You cannot serve God and wealth</u>. (Matthew 6:22-24 ULT)
A person who is envious might put a curse or enchantment on someone by looking at him with an evil eye.
>Foolish Galatians, whose <u>evil eye</u> has harmed you? (Galatians 3:1 ULT)
>The eye is the lamp of the body. Therefore, if your <u>eye is good</u>, the whole body is filled with light. But if your <u>eye is bad</u>, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. <u>You cannot serve God and wealth</u>. (Matthew 6:22-24 ULB)
A person with a good eye can put a blessing on someone by looking at him.
> If I have found <u>favor in your eyes</u>... (1 Samuel 27:5 ULT)
>If I have found <u>favor in your eyes</u>... (1 Samuel 27:5 ULB)
#### Life is modeled as BLOOD
In this model, the blood of a person or an animal represents its life.
>But you must not eat meat with <u>its life—that is its blood</u>—in it. (Genesis 9:4 ULT)
>But you must not eat meat with <u>its life—that is its blood</u>—in it. (Genesis 9:4 ULB)
If blood is spilled or shed, someone has been killed.
>Whoever <u>sheds man's blood</u>, by man will his <u>blood be shed</u>, (Genesis 9:6 ULT)
>Whoever <u>sheds man's blood</u>, by man will his <u>blood be shed</u>. (Genesis 9:6 ULB)
<blockquote>In this way, this person would not die by the hand of the one who wanted to avenge <u>the blood that was shed</u>, until the accused person would first stand before the assembly. (Joshua 20:9 ULT)</blockquote>
>This person would not die by the hand of the one who wanted to avenge <u>the blood that was shed</u>, until the accused person would first stand before the assembly. (Joshua 20:9 ULB)
If blood cries out, nature itself is crying out for vengeance on a person who killed someone. (This also includes personification, because the blood is pictured as someone that can cry out. See: [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
>Yahweh said, "What have you done? <u>Your brother's blood is calling out to me</u> from the ground. (Genesis 4:10 ULT)
>Yahweh said, "What have you done? <u>Your brother's blood is calling out to me</u> from the ground. (Genesis 4:10 ULB)
#### A country is modeled as a WOMAN, and its gods are modeled as HER HUSBAND
>It came about, as soon as Gideon was dead, the people of Israel turned again and <u>prostituted themselves</u> by worshiping the Baals. They made Baal Berith their god. (Judges 8:33 ULT)
>It came about, as soon as Gideon was dead, the people of Israel turned again and <u>prostituted themselves</u> by worshiping the Baals. They made Baal-Berith their god. (Judges 8:33 ULB)
#### The nation of Israel is modeled as GOD'S SON
>When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called <u>my son</u> out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULT)
>When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called <u>my son</u> out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULB)
#### The sun is modeled as BEING IN A CONTAINER AT NIGHT
>Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched <u>a tent for the sun</u> among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of <u>his chamber</u> and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULT)
>Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched <u>a tent for the sun</u> among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of <u>his chamber</u> and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULB)
Psalm 110 pictures the sun as being in the womb before it comes out in the morning.
>from <u>the womb</u> of the dawn your youth will be to you like the dew. (Psalm 110:3 ULT)
>From <u>the womb</u> of the dawn your youth will be to you like the dew. (Psalm 110:3 ULB)
#### Things that can move fast are modeled as having WINGS
@ -142,17 +130,17 @@ This is especially true of things that move in the air or the sky.
The sun is modeled as a disc with wings, which allow it to "fly" through the air from east to west during the daytime. In Psalm 139, "the wings of the morning" refers to the sun. In Malachi 4 God called himself the "sun of righteousness" and he spoke of the sun as having wings.
>If I fly away on <u>the wings of the morning</u> and go to live in the uttermost parts across the sea... (Psalm 139:9 ULT)
>If I fly away on <u>the wings of the morning</u> and go to live in the uttermost parts across the sea... (Psalm 139:9 ULB)
<blockquote>But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing <u>in its wings</u>. (Malachi 4:2 ULT)</blockquote>
>But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing <u>in its wings</u>. (Malachi 4:2 ULB)
The wind moves quickly and is modeled as having wings.
>He was seen flying on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (2 Sam. 22:11 ULT)
>He was seen on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (2 Samuel 22:11 ULB)
<blockquote>He rode on a cherub and flew; he glided on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (Psalm 18:10 ULT)</blockquote>
>He rode on a cherub and flew; he glided on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (Psalm 18:10 ULB)
>you walk on the <u>wings of the wind</u> (Psalm 104:3 ULT)
>You walk on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (Psalm 104:3 ULB)
#### Futility is modeled as something that the WIND can blow away
@ -161,42 +149,36 @@ In this model, the wind blows away things that are worthless, and they are gone.
Psalm 1 and Job 27 show that wicked people are worthless and will not live long.
>The wicked are not so,
>but are instead <u>like the chaff that the wind drives away</u>. (Psalm 1:4 ULT)
>but are instead <u>like the chaff that the wind drives away</u>. (Psalm 1:4 ULB)
><u>The east wind carries him away</u>, and he leaves;
><u>it sweeps him out of his place</u>. (Job 27:21 ULT)
The writer of Ecclesiastes says that everything is worthless.
><u>Like a vapor of mist</u>,
><u>like a breeze in the wind</u>,
>everything vanishes, leaving many questions.
>What profit does mankind gain from all the work that they labor at under the sun? (Ecclesiastes 1:2-3 ULT)
><u>it sweeps him out of his place</u>. (Job 27:21 ULB)
In Job 30:15, Job complains that his honor and prosperity are gone.
>Terrors are turned upon me;
>my honor is <u>driven away as if by the wind</u>;
>my prosperity <u>passes away as a cloud</u>. (Job 30:15 ULT)
>my prosperity <u>passes away as a cloud</u>. (Job 30:15 ULB)
#### Human warfare is modeled as DIVINE WARFARE
When there was a war between nations, people believed that the gods of those nations were also at war.
>This happened while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, those whom Yahweh had killed among them, for <u>he also inflicted punishment on their gods</u>. (Numbers 33:4 ULT)
>This happened while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, those whom Yahweh had killed among them, for <u>he also inflicted punishment on their gods</u>. (Numbers 33:4 ULB)
<blockquote>And what nation is like your people Israel, the one nation on earth whom you, God, went and rescued for yourself?...You drove out nations <u>and their gods</u> from before your people, whom you rescued from Egypt. (2 Samuel 7:23 ULT)</blockquote>
>What nation is like your people Israel, the one nation on earth whom you, God, went and rescued for yourself?...You drove out nations <u>and their gods</u> from before your people, whom you rescued from Egypt. (2 Samuel 7:23 ULB)
>The servants of the king of Aram said to him, "<u>Their god is a god of the hills. That is why they were stronger than we were</u>. But now let us fight against them in the plain, and surely there we will be stronger than they." (1 Kings 20:23 ULT)
>The servants of the king of Aram said to him, "<u>Their god is a god of the hills. That is why they were stronger than we were</u>. But now let us fight against them in the plain, and surely there we will be stronger than they." (1 Kings 20:23 ULB)
#### Constraints in life are modeled as PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
The verses below are not about real physical boundaries but about difficulties or the lack of difficulties in life.
>He has built <u>a wall</u> around me, and I cannot escape. He has made my shackles heavy. (Lamentations 3:7 ULT)
>He built <u>a wall</u> around me and I cannot escape. He made my chains heavy. (Lamentations 3:7 ULB)
<blockquote>He has blocked my path with <u>walls of hewn stone</u>; every way I take is crooked. (Lamentations 3:9 ULT)</blockquote>
>He blocked my path with <u>a wall of hewn stone</u>; he made my paths crooked. (Lamentations 3:9 ULB)
><u>Measuring lines</u> have been laid for me in pleasant places (Psalm 16:6 ULT)
><u>Measuring lines</u> have been laid for me in pleasant places. (Psalm 16:6 ULB)
#### Dangerous places are modeled as NARROW PLACES
@ -204,23 +186,23 @@ In Psalm 4 David asks God to rescue him.
>Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
>give me room <u>when I am hemmed in</u>.
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULT)
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULB)
#### A distressing situation is modeled as a WILDERNESS
When Job was distressed because of all the sad things that happened to him, he spoke as if he were in a wilderness. Jackals and ostriches are animals that live in the wilderness.
>My heart is troubled and does not rest;
>days of affliction have come on me.
>I go about with darkened skin but not because of the sun;
>I have gone about like one who was living in the dark,
>but not because of the sun;
>I stand up in the assembly and cry for help.
>I am <u>a brother to jackals</u>,
><u>a companion of ostriches</u>. (Job 30:27-29 ULT)
><u>a companion of ostriches</u>. (Job 30:27-29 ULB)
#### Wellbeing is modeled as PHYSICAL CLEANLINESS, and evil is modeled as PHYSICAL DIRTINESS
Leprosy is a disease. If a person had it, he was said to be unclean.
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>." Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, "I am willing. Be clean." Immediately he was <u>cleansed of his leprosy.</u> (Matthew 8:2-3 ULT)
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>." Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, "I am willing. Be clean." Immediately he was <u>cleansed of his leprosy.</u> (Matthew 8:2-3 ULB)
An "unclean spirit" is an evil spirit.
>When an <u>unclean spirit</u> has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULT)
>When an <u>unclean spirit</u> has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULB)

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### LIGHT represents someone's face (This often combines with FACE represents someone's presence)
<blockquote>Yahweh, lift up the <u>light of your face</u> on us. (Psalm 4:6 ULT)</blockquote>
>Yahweh, lift up the <u>light of your face</u> on us. (Psalm 4:6 ULB)
>For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword,
>neither did their own arm save them;
>but your right hand, your arm, and the <u>light of your face</u>,
>because you were favorable to them. (Psalm 44:3 ULT)
<blockquote>they did not reject the <u>light of my face</u>. (Job 29:24 ULT)</blockquote>
>Yahweh, they walk in the <u>light of your face</u>. (Psalm 89:15 ULT)
>because you were favorable to them. (Psalm 44:3 ULB)
>They did not reject the <u>light of my face</u>. (Job 29:24 ULB)
>Yahweh, they walk in the <u>light of your face</u>. (Psalm 89:15 ULB)
#### LIGHT represents goodness, and DARKNESS represents evil
>But if your eye is bad, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! (Matthew 6:23 ULT)
>But if your eye is bad, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! (Matthew 6:23 ULB)
#### SHADOW or DARKNESS represents death
>Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the <u>shadow of death</u>. (Psalm 44:19)
#### FIRE represents extreme feelings, particularly love or anger
>Because iniquity will be increased, the love of many will <u>be extinguished</u>. (Matthew 24:12 ULT)
>Surging waters cannot <u>quench</u> love. (Song of Songs 8:7 ULB)
>For <u>a fire is kindled by my anger</u> and <u>is burning</u> to the lowest sheol. (Deuteronomy 32:22 ULB)
<blockquote>Surging waters cannot <u>quench</u> love. (Song of Songs 8:7 ULT)</blockquote>
>For <u>a fire is kindled by my anger</u> and <u>is burning</u> to the lowest sheol. (Deuteronomy 32:22 ULT)
<blockquote>Therefore <u>the anger of Yahweh was set on fire</u> against Israel. (Judges 3:8 ULT)</blockquote>
>When Yahweh heard this, <u>he was angry</u>; so <u>his fire burned</u> against Jacob, and <u>his anger</u> attacked Israel. (Psalm 78:21 ULT)
>Therefore, <u>the anger of Yahweh was set on fire</u> against Israel. (Judges 3:8 ULB)
>When Yahweh heard this, <u>he was angry</u>; so <u>his fire burned</u> against Jacob, and <u>his anger</u> attacked Israel. (Psalm 78:21 ULB)
#### FIRE OR A LAMP represents life
>They say, 'Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the <u>burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. 2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
>They say, 'Give into our hand the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' So they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the <u>burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULB)
>Ishbi-Benob... intended to kill David. But Abishai son of Zeruiah rescued David.... Then the men of David swore to him, saying, "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out <u>the lamp of Israel</u> (2 Samuel 21:17 ULB)
<blockquote>You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp of Israel</u>. (2 Samuel 21:17 ULT) </blockquote>
>I will give one tribe to Solomon's son, so that David my servant may always have <u>a lamp</u> before me in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:36 ULB)
>Nevertheless for David's sake, Yahweh his God gave him <u>a lamp</u> in Jerusalem by raising up his son after him in order to strengthen Jerusalem. (1 Kings 15:4 ULB)
>I will give one tribe to Solomon's son, so that David my servant may always have <u>a lamp</u> before me in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:36 ULT)
>Indeed, <u>the light</u> of the wicked person will be put out; <u>the spark of his fire</u> will not shine. <u>The light</u> will be dark in his tent; <u>his lamp</u> above him will be put out. (Job 18:5-6 ULB)
>For you give <u>light to my lamp</u>; Yahweh my God <u>lights up my darkness</u>. (Psalm 18:28 ULB)
<blockquote>Nevertheless for David's sake, Yahweh his God gave him <u>a lamp</u> in Jerusalem by raising up his son after him in order to strengthen Jerusalem. (1 Kings 15:4 ULT)</blockquote>
>Indeed, <u>the light</u> of the wicked person will be put out; <u>the spark of his fire</u> will not shine. <u>The light</u> will be dark in his tent; <u>his lamp</u> above him will be put out. (Job 18:5-6 ULT)
<blockquote>For you give <u>light to my lamp</u>; Yahweh my God <u>lights up my darkness</u>. (Psalm 18:28 ULT)</blockquote>
>A dimly burning wick he will not quench. (Isaiah 42:3 ULT)
>A dimly burning wick he will not quench. (Isaiah 42:3 ULB)
#### A WIDE SPACE reperesents safetey, security, and ease
>They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support!
>He set me free in <u>a wide open place</u>; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalms 18:18-19 ULT)
>He set me free in <u>a wide open place</u>; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalm 18:18-19 ULB)
>You have made <u>a wide place</u> for my feet beneath me,
>so my feet have not slipped. (2 Samuel 22:37 ULT)
>so my feet have not slipped. (2 Samuel 22:37 ULB)
>You made people ride over our heads;
>we went through fire and water,
>but you brought us out into <u>a spacious place</u>. (Psalms 66:12 ULT)
>but you brought us out into <u>a spacious place</u>. (Psalm 66:12 ULB)
#### A NARROW SPACE represents danger or difficulties
>Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
>give me room when <u>I am hemmed in</u>.
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. Psalm 4:1 ULT)
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. Psalm 4:1 ULB)
>For a prostitute is a deep pit,
>and an immoral woman is <u>a narrow well</u>. (Proverbs 23:27 ULT)
>and an immoral woman is <u>a narrow well</u>. (Proverbs 23:27 ULB)
#### LIQUID represents a moral quality (emotion, attitude, spirit, life)
>Yahweh has burst through my enemies before me like a bursting <u>flood of water</u>. (2 Samuel 5:20 ULT)
>Yahweh has burst through my enemies before me like a bursting <u>flood of water</u>. (2 Samuel 5:20 ULB)
>But he will make a full end to his enemies with an overwhelming <u>flood</u>. (Nahum 1:8 ULB)
<blockquote>He will make a full end to his enemies with an overwhelming <u>flood</u>. (Nahum 1:8 ULT)</blockquote>
>I am being <u>poured out like water</u>. (Psalm 22:14 ULB)
>It will come about afterward that I will <u>pour out</u> my Spirit on all flesh. (Joel 2:28 ULB)
>My heart <u>drips</u> because of sadness. (Psalm 119:28 ULT)
<blockquote>I am being <u>poured out like water</u>. (Psalm 22:14 ULT) </blockquote>
>It will come about afterward that I will <u>pour out</u> my Spirit on all flesh. (Joel 2:28 ULT)
<blockquote>My God, my soul has <u>melted</u> within me. (Psalm 42:6 ULT)</blockquote>
> For it is great, the anger of Yahweh that has been <u>poured out</u> on us. (2 Chronicles 34:21 ULT)
>For it is great, the anger of Yahweh that has been <u>poured out</u> on us. (2 Chronicles 34:21 ULB)
#### WATER represents what someone says
>A quarreling wife is a constant <u>dripping of water</u>. (Proverbs 19:13 ULT)
>A quarreling wife is a constant <u>dripping of water</u>. (Proverbs 19:13 ULB)
>His lips are lilies, <u>dripping with myrrh</u>. (Song of Songs 5:13 ULB)
<blockquote>His lips are lilies, <u>dripping myrrh</u>. (Song of Songs 5:13 ULT)</blockquote>
>My groaning is <u>poured out like water</u>. (Job 3:24 ULT)
<blockquote>The words of a man's mouth are <u>deep waters</u>; the <u>fountain of wisdom</u> is a flowing stream. (Proverbs 18:3 ULT)</blockquote>
>My groaning is <u>poured out like water</u>. (Job 3:24 ULB)
>The words of a man's mouth are <u>deep waters</u>; the <u>fountain of wisdom</u> is a flowing stream. (Proverbs 18:4 ULB)
#### FLOODING WATER represents disaster
>I have come into <u>deep waters</u>, where the <u>floods flow</u> over me. (Psalm 69:2 ULT)
>I have come into <u>deep waters</u>, where the <u>floods flow</u> over me. (Psalm 69:2 ULB)
>Do not let the <u>floods of water</u> overwhelm me. (Psalm 69:15 ULB)
<blockquote>Do not let the <u>floods of water</u> overwhelm me. (Psalm 69:15 ULT)</blockquote>
>Reach out your hand from above; rescue me out of <u>many waters</u> from the hands of these foreigners. (Psalm 144:7 ULT)
>Reach out your hand from above; rescue me out of <u>many waters</u>, from the hands of these foreigners. (Psalm 144:7 ULB)
#### A SPRING OF WATER represents the origins of something
>The fear of Yahweh is a <u>fountain of life</u>. (Proverbs 14:27 ULT)
>The fear of Yahweh is a <u>fountain of life</u>. (Proverbs 14:27 ULB)
#### A ROCK represents protection
>Who is a rock except our God? (Psalm 18:31 ULT)
<blockquote>Yahweh, my rock, and my redeemer. (Psalm 19:14 ULT)</blockquote>
>Yahweh is <u>my rock</u>, my fortress, the one who brings me to safety; he is my God, <u>my rock</u>; I take refuge in him. (Psalm 18:2 ULB)
>Listen to me; rescue me quickly; be <u>my rock of refuge</u>, a stronghold to save me. (Psalm 31:2)
> For in the day of trouble he will hide me in his shelter; in the cover of his tent he will conceal me. He will lift me high on <u>a rock</u>! Then my head will be lifted up above my enemies all around me. (Psalm 27:5-6)

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### A BRANCH represents a person's descendant
In the examples below, Isaiah wrote about one of Jesse's descendants and Jeremiah wrote about one of David's descendants.
><u>A shoot</u> will sprout from the root of Jesse, and <u>a branch</u> out of his root will bear fruit.
>The Spirit of Yahweh will rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding. (Isaiah 11:1 ULT)
><u>A shoot</u> will sprout from the stump of Jesse, and <u>a branch</u> out of his root will bear fruit.
>The Spirit of Yahweh will rest upon him, the Spirit of wisdom and understanding. (Isaiah 11:1-2 ULB)
>See, days are coming—this is Yahweh's declaration—when I will raise up for David <u>a righteous branch</u>.
>He will reign as king; he will bring prosperity and carry out justice and righteousness in the land. (Jeremiah 23:5 ULT)
>He will reign as king; he will act wisely and cause justice and righteousness in the land. (Jeremiah 23:5 ULB)
In Job when it says "his branch will be cut off," it means that he will not have any descendants.
>His roots will be dried up beneath;
>above will <u>his branch be cut off</u>.
>His memory will perish from the earth;
>he will have no name in the street. (Job 18:17 ULT)
>he will have no name in the street. (Job 18:16-17 ULB)
#### A PLANT represents a person
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will…<u>root you out</u> of the land of the living. (Psalm 52:5 ULT)
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will ... <u>root you out</u> of the land of the living. (Psalm 52:5 ULB)
#### A PLANT represents an emotion or attitude
Just as planting one kind of seeds results in that kind of plant growing, behaving in one way results in that kind of consequence.
Just as planting one kind of seed results in that kind of plant growing, behaving in one way results in that kind of consequence.
The emotion or attitude in the verses is underlined below.
>Sow <u>righteousness</u> for yourselves, and reap the fruit of <u>covenant faithfulness</u>. (Hosea 10:12 ULT)
>Sow <u>righteousness</u> for yourselves, and reap the fruit of <u>covenant faithfulness</u>. (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
>According to what I have seen, those who plow <u>iniquity</u> and sow <u>trouble</u> reap it. (Job 4:8 ULB)
<blockquote>Based on what I have observed, those who plow <u>iniquity</u> and sow <u>trouble</u>, reap the same. (Job 4:8 ULT)</blockquote>
>For the people sow <u>the wind</u> and reap <u>the whirlwind</u>. (Hosea 8:7 ULB)
>You have turned ... the fruit of <u>righteousness</u> into bitterness. (Amos 6:12 ULB)
>For the people sow <u>the wind</u> and reap <u>the whirlwind</u>. (Hosea 8:7 ULT)
<blockquote>You have turned…the fruit of <u>righteousness</u> into bitterness. (Amos 6:12 ULT)</blockquote>
>What fruit then did you have at that time of the things of which you are now <u>ashamed</u>? (Romans 6:21 ULT)
>At that time, what fruit then did you have of the things of which you are now <u>ashamed</u>? (Romans 6:21 ULB)
#### A TREE represents a person
>He will be like <u>a tree planted</u> by the streams of water that <u>produces its fruit in its season</u>, whose <u>leaves do not wither</u>; whatever he does will prosper. (Psalm 1:3 ULT)
>He will be like <u>a tree planted</u> by the streams of water that <u>produces its fruit in its season</u>, whose <u>leaves do not wither</u>; whatever he does will prosper. (Psalm 1:3 ULB)
>I have seen the wicked and terrifying person spread out <u>like a green tree in its native soil</u>. (Psalm 37:35 ULB)
<blockquote>I have seen the wicked and terrifying person spread out <u>like a green tree in its native soil</u>. (Psalm 37:35 ULT)</blockquote>
>I am <u>like a green olive tree</u> in God's house. (Psalm 52:8 ULT)
>I am <u>like a green olive tree</u> in the house of God. (Psalm 52:8 ULB)

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Normally a speaker refers to himself as "I" and the person he is speaking to as "you." Sometimes in the Bible a speaker referred to himself or to the person he was speaking to with a phrase other than "I" or "you."
### Description
Normally a speaker refers to himself as "I" and the person he is speaking to as "you." Sometimes in the Bible a speaker referred to himself or to the person he was speaking to with a phrase other than "I" or "you." We use the categories "first person," "second person," and "third person" when discussing the pronouns and other forms that speakers normally use when they refer to themselves, to those they are speaking to, and to others.
* **First person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to himself. English uses the pronouns "I" and "we." (Also: me, my, mine; us, our, ours)
* **Second person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to the person or people he is speaking to. English uses the pronoun "you." (Also: your, yours)
* **Third person** - This is how a speaker refers to someone else. English uses the pronouns "he," "she," "it" and "they." (Also: him, his, her, hers, its; them, their, theirs) Noun phrases like "the man" or "the woman" are also third person.
### Reason this is a Translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Sometimes in the Bible a speaker used the third person to refer to himself or to the people he was speaking to. Readers might think that the speaker was referring to someone else. They might not understand that he meant "I" or "you."
### Examples from the Bible
Sometimes people used the third person instead of "I" or "me" to refer to themselves.
>But David said to Saul, "<u>Your servant</u> used to keep <u>his</u> father's sheep." (1 Samuel 17:34 ULT)
>But David said to Saul, "<u>Your servant</u> used to keep <u>his</u> father's sheep." (1 Samuel 17:34 ULB)
David referred to himself in the third person as "your servant" and "his." He was calling himself Saul's servant in order to show his humility before Saul.
>Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said,
>"… Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>? (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
>"... Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>?"" (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)
God referred to himself in the third person with the words "God's" and "him." He did this to emphasize that he is God, and he is powerful.
Sometimes people use the third person instead of "you" or "your" to refer to the person or people they are speaking to.
>Abraham answered and said, "Look what I have done, taking it upon myself to speak to <u>my Lord</u>, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULT)
>Abraham answered and said, "Look, I have undertaken to speak to <u>my Lord</u>, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULB)
Abraham was speaking to the Lord, and referred to the Lord as "My Lord" rather than as "you." He did this to show his humility before God.
>So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if <u>each of you</u> does not forgive <u>his</u> brother from your heart. (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
After saying "each of you," Jesus used the third person "his" instead of "your."
>Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>his</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others. (Philippians 2:4 ULB)
After writing "each of you," Paul used the third person "his" instead of "your" to refer to the same people.
### Translation Strategies
If using the third person to mean "I" or "you" would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.
If using the third person to mean "I" or "you" would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, consider these strategies.
1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."
1. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.
@ -41,15 +42,12 @@ If using the third person to mean "I" or "you" would be natural and give the rig
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."
* **But David said to Saul, "<u>Your servant</u> used to keep <u>his</u> father's sheep."** (1 Samuel 17:34)
* But David said to Saul, "<u>I, your servant</u>, used to keep <u>my</u> father's sheep."
1. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.
* **Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "… Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>?** (Job 40:6, 9 ULT)
* Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "… Do you have an arm like <u>mine</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>me</u>?"
* **So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if <u>each of you</u> does not forgive <u>his</u> brother from your heart.** (Matthew 18:35 ULT)
* So also my heavenly Father will do to you, if <u>each of you</u> does not forgive <u>your</u> brother from your heart.
* **Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>?** (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)
* Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like <u>mine</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>me</u>?"
* **Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>his</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others.** (Philippians 2:4 ULB)
* Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>your</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others.

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Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even to relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as happiness, weight, injury, unity, friendship, health, and reason. This is a translation issue because some languages may express a certain idea with an abstract noun, while others would need a different way to express it. For example, "What is its <u>weight</u>?" could be expressed as "How much does it <u>weigh</u>?" or "How <u>heavy</u> is it?"
### Description
Remember that nouns are words that refer to a person, place, thing, or idea. **Abstract Nouns** are the nouns that refer to ideas. These can be attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, creation, goodness, contentment, justice, truth, freedom, vengeance, slowness, length, and weight.
Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even to relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, goodness, health, weight, creation, injury, unity, friendship, health, and reason.
Using abstract nouns allows people to express thoughts about ideas in fewer words than if they did not have those nouns. It is a way of giving names to actions or qualities so that people can talk about them as though they were things. It is like a short-cut in language. For example, in languages that use abstract nouns, people can say, "I believe in the forgiveness of sin." But if the language did not have the two abstract nouns "forgiveness" and "sin," then they would have to make a longer sentence to express the same meaning. They would have to say, for example, "I believe that God is willing to forgive people after they have sinned," using verb phrases instead of nouns for those ideas.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
The Bible that you translate from may use abstract nouns to express certain ideas. Your language might not use abstract nouns for some of those ideas; instead, it might use phrases to express those ideas. Those phrases will use other kinds of words such as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs to express the meaning of the abstract noun.
### Examples from the Bible
> ..._from <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings ..._ (2 Timothy 3:15 ULT)
>From <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings. (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)
The abstract noun "childhood" refers to when someone is a child.
>But <u>godliness</u> with <u>contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
>Now <u>godliness</u> with <u>contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)
The abstract nouns "godliness" and "contentment" refer to being godly and content.
The abstract noun "gain" refers to something that benefits or helps someone.
>Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULT)
>Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULB)
The abstract noun "salvation" here refers to being saved.
>The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be (2 Peter 3:9 ULT)
>The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be. (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)
The abstract noun "slowness" refers how slowly something is done.
>He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULT)
>He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)
The abstract noun "purposes" refers to the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them.
@ -43,22 +40,17 @@ If an abstract noun would be natural and give the right meaning in your language
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.
* **... from <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings ...** (2 Timothy 3:15 ULT)
* **From <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings.** (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)
* Ever since <u>you were a child</u> you have known the sacred writings.
* **But <u>godliness with contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>.** (1 Timothy 6:6 ULT)
* But <u>being godly</u> and <u>content</u> is very <u>beneficial</u>.
* But we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>are godly</u> and <u>content</u>.
* But we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>honor and obey God</u> and when we are <u>happy with what we have</u>.
* **Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham.** (Luke 19:9 ULT)
* Today the people in this house <u>have been saved</u>…
* Today God <u>has saved</u> the people in this house…
* **The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be.** (2 Peter 3:9 ULT)
* **Now <u>godliness with contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>.** (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)
* Now <u>being godly</u> and <u>content</u> is very <u>beneficial</u>.
* Now we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>are godly</u> and <u>content</u>.
* Now we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>honor and obey God</u> and when we are <u>happy with what we have</u>.
* **Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house ....** (Luke 19:9 ULB)
* Today the people in this house <u>have been saved</u> ...
* Today God <u>has saved</u> the people in this house ...
* **The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be.** (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)
* The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>moving slowly</u> to be.
* **He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart.** (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULT)
* **He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart.** (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)
* He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal <u>the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them</u>.

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Some languages have both active and passive sentences. In active sentences, the subject does the action. In passive sentences, the subject is the one that receives the action. Here are some examples with their subjects underlined:
* ACTIVE: <u>My father</u> built the house in 2010.
* PASSIVE: <u>The house</u> was built in 2010.
Translators whose languages do not have passive sentences will need to know how they can translate passive sentences that they find in the Bible. Other translators will need to decide when to use a passive sentence and when to use the active form.
### Description
Some languages have both active and passive forms of sentences.
Some languages have both active and passive forms sentences. In **active** sentences, the subject does the action. In **passive** sentences, the action is done to the subject. Passive sentences do not always tell who did the action. Here are some examples with their subjects underlined:
* In the **ACTIVE** form, the subject does the action and is always mentioned.
* In the **PASSIVE** form, the action is done to the subject, and the one who does the action is *not always* mentioned.
* ACTIVE: <u>My father</u> built the house in 2010.
* PASSIVE: <u>The house</u> was built by my father in 2010.
* PASSIVE: <u>The house</u> was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)
In the examples of active and passive sentences below, we have underlined the subject.
* **ACTIVE**: <u>My father</u> built the house in 2010.
* **PASSIVE**: <u>The house</u> was built by my father in 2010.
* **PASSIVE**: <u>The house</u> was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
All languages have active forms. Some languages have passive forms, and some do not. 
The passive form is not used for the same purposes in all of the languages that have it.
@ -30,22 +17,22 @@ The passive form is not used for the same purposes in all of the languages that
* The speaker does not want to tell who did the action. 
* The speaker does not know who did the action.
#### Translation Principles Regarding the Passive
### Translation principles Regarding the Passive
* Translators whose language does not use passive forms will need to find another way to express the idea. 
* Translators whose language has passive forms will need to understand why the passive is used in a particular sentence in the Bible and decide whether or not to use a passive form for that purpose in his translation of the sentence.
### Examples from the Bible
>And their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king's servants <u>were killed</u>, and your servant Uriah the Hittite <u>was killed</u> too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULT)
>Then their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king's servants <u>were killed</u>, and your servant Uriah the Hittite <u>was killed</u> too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULB)
This means that the enemy's shooters shot and killed some of the king's servants, including Uriah. The point is what happened to the king's servants and Uriah, not who shot them. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on the king's servants and Uriah.
>In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal <u>was broken down</u> … (Judges 6:28 ULT)
>In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal <u>was broken down</u>.(Judges 6:28 ULB)
The men of the town saw what had happened to the altar of Baal, but they did not know who broke it down. The purpose of the passive form here is to communicate this event from the perspective of the men of the town.
>It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea (Luke 17:2 ULT)
>It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea. (Luke 17:2 ULB)
This describes a situation in which a person ends up in the sea with a millstone around his neck. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on what happens to this person. Who does these things to the person is not important.
@ -60,18 +47,15 @@ If you decide that it is better to translate without a passive form, here are so
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULT)
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
* <u>The king's servants gave</u> Jeremiah a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like "they" or  "people" or  "someone." 
* **It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea.** (Luke 17:2 ULT)
* **It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea.** (Luke 17:2 ULB)
* It would be better for him if <u>they were to put</u> a millstone around his neck and <u>throw</u> him into the sea.
* It would be better for him if <u>someone were to put</u> a heavy stone around his neck and <u>throw</u> him into the sea.
1. Use a different verb in an active sentence. 
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULT)
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
* He <u>received</u> a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.

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### Definition
An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker turns his attention away from his listeners and speaks to someone or something that he knows cannot hear him.
### Description
He does this to tell his listeners his message or feelings about that person or thing in a very strong way.
An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker turns his attention away from his listeners and speaks to someone or something that he knows cannot hear him. He does this to tell his listeners his message or feelings about that person or thing in a very strong way.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Many languages do not use apostrophe, and readers could be confused by it. They may wonder who the speaker is talking to, or think that the speaker is crazy to talk to things or people who cannot hear.
### Examples from the Bible
>Mountains of Gilboa, let there not be dew or rain on you (2 Samuel 1:21 ULT)
When King Saul was killed on Mount Gilboa, David sang a sad song about it. He showed how sad he was by telling the mountains that he wanted them to have no dew or rain.
King Saul was killed on Mount Gilboa, and David sang a sad song about it. By telling these mountains that he wanted them to have no dew or rain, he showed how sad he was.
><u>Mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>you</u>. (2 Samuel 1:21 ULB)
>Jerusalem, Jerusalem, who kills the prophets and stones those sent to you. (Luke 13:34 ULT)
When a king broke God's law by building a new altar and offering sacrifices on it, a man of God went to the king to rebuke him. The man told how God would punish the king by speaking to the altar as if the altar could hear him, but he really wanted the king to hear him.
Jesus was expressing his feelings for the people of Jerusalem in front of his disciples and a group of Pharisees. By speaking directly to Jerusalem as though its people could hear him, Jesus showed how deeply he cared about them.
>He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, ... on <u>you</u> they will burn human bones.' " (1 Kings 13:2 ULB)
>He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, … on you they will burn human bones.' " (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
The man of God spoke as if the altar could hear him, but he really wanted the king, who was standing there, to hear him.
When Jesus was telling his disciples and a group of Pharisees about the people of Jerusalem, he showed his sadness for the people of Jerusalem by speaking directly to city of Jerusalem as though its people could hear him. But he really wanted the disciples and the Pharisees to hear him.
><u>Jerusalem, Jerusalem</u>, who kills the prophets and stones those sent to <u>you</u>. How often I desired to gather <u>your children</u> the way a hen gathers her brood under her wings, but <u>you</u> did not desire this. See, <u>your house</u> is abandoned. I say to <u>you, you</u> will not see me until <u>you</u> say, 'Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.'"(Luke 13:34 ULB)
>
### Translation Strategies
If apostrophe would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option.
@ -34,10 +30,8 @@ If apostrophe would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, cons
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If this way of speaking would be confusing to your people, let the speaker continue speaking to the people that are listening to him as he tells <u>them</u> his message or feelings about the people or thing that cannot hear him.
* **He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, … on you they will burn human bones.' "** (1 Kings 13:2 ULT)
* He said this about the altar: "This is what Yahweh says <u>about this altar.</u> 'See, … they will burn people's bones on <u>it</u>.' "
* **<u>Mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>you</u>** (2 Samuel 1:21 ULT)
* <u>As for these mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>them</u>
* **He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, ... on you they will burn human bones.' "** (1 Kings 13:2 ULB)
* By the word of the Lord, he said this about the altar: "This is what Yahweh says <u>about this altar.</u> 'See, ... they will burn people's bones on <u>it</u>.' "
* **<u>Mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>you</u>.** (2 Samuel 1:21 ULB)
* <u>As for these mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>them</u>.

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Normally statements are used to give information. But sometimes they are used in the Bible for other functions.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Some languages would not use a statement for some of the functions that statements are used for in the Bible.
### Examples from the Bible
Statements are normally used to give **information**. All of the sentences in John 1:6-8 below are statements, and their function is to give information.
#### Statements are normally used to give information.
> There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULT)
>There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULB)
A statement can also be used as a **command** to tell someone what to do. In the examples below, the high priest used statements with the verb "will" to tell people what to do.
All of the sentences in John 1:6-8 above are statements, and their function is to give information.
>He commanded them, saying, "This is what you **must** do. A third of you who come on the Sabbath _will_ keep watch over the king's house, and a third _will_ be at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse." (2 Kings 11:5 ULT)
####A statement can also be used as a **command** to tell someone what to do.
A statement can also be used to give **instructions**. The speaker below was not just telling Joseph about something Joseph would do in the future; he was telling Joseph what he needed to do.
>He commanded them, saying, "This is what <u>you must do</u>. A third of you who come on the Sabbath <u>will keep watch</u> over the king's house, and a third <u>will be</u> at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse." (2 Kings 11:5-6 ULB)
> She will give birth to a son, and _you will call his name Jesus_, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
In the examples above, the high priest used a statement with the verb "must" and then statements with the verb "will" to tell people what to do.
A statement can also be used to make a **request**. The man with leprosy was not just saying what Jesus was able to do. He was also asking Jesus to heal him.
####A statement can also be used to give instructions.
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, _you can make me clean_." (Matthew 8:2 ULT)
>She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULB)
A statement can also be used to **perform** something. By telling Adam that the ground was cursed because of him, God actually cursed it.
The angel was not simply telling Joseph about something Joseph would do in the future; he was telling Joseph what he needed to do.
>... cursed is the ground because of you; (Genesis 3:17 ULT)
####A statement can also be used to make a request.
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>." (Matthew 8:2 ULB)
The man with leprosy was not just saying what Jesus was able to do. He was also asking Jesus to heal him.
####A statement can also be used to perform something.
><u>Cursed is the ground</u> because of you. (Genesis 3:17 ULB)
By telling Adam that the ground was cursed because of him, God actually cursed it.
>Seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralyzed man, "Son, <u>your sins are forgiven</u>." (Mark 2:5 ULB)
By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, Jesus forgave the man's sins.
>Seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralyzed man, "Son, _your sins are forgiven_." (Luke 2:5 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _use a sentence type_ that would express that function.
@ -42,22 +52,18 @@ By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, Jesus forgave the man's sins.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a sentence type that would express that function.
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULT) The phrase "you will call his name Jesus" is an instruction. It can be translated using the sentence type of a normal instruction.
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULB) The phrase "you will call his name Jesus" is an instruction. It can be translated using the sentence type of a normal instruction.
* She will give birth to a son. <u>Name him Jesus</u>, because he will save his people from their sins.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, add a sentence type that would express that function.
* **Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>.** (Matthew 8:2 ULT) The function of "you can make me clean" is to make a request. In addition to the statement, a request can be added.
* **Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>.** (Matthew 8:2 ULB) The function of "you can make me clean" is to make a request. In addition to the statement, a request can be added.
* Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean. Please do so.</u>
* Lord, if you are willing, <u>please make me clean. I know you can do so.</u>
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a verb form that would express that function.
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULT)
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULB)
* She will give birth to a son, and <u>you must call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.
* **Son, your sins are forgiven.** Luke 2:5 ULT)
* **Son, your sins are forgiven.** (Mark 2:5 ULB)
* Son, I forgive your sins.
* Son, God has forgiven your sins.

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### Examples from the Bible
**Examples of words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items**: These usually do not cause a problem in translation.
##### Words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items
>… The curtain is to separate <u>the holy place</u> from <u>the most holy place</u>. (Exodus 26:33 ULT)
These usually do not cause a problem in translation.
>The curtain is to separate <u>the holy place</u> from <u>the most holy place</u>. (Exodus 26:33 ULB)
The words "holy" and "most holy" distinguish two different places from each other and from any other place.
>A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to <u>the woman who bore him</u>. (Proverbs 17:25 ULT)
>A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to <u>the woman who bore him</u>. (Proverbs 17:25 ULB)
The phrase "who bore him" distinguishes which woman the son is bitterness to. He is not bitterness to all women, but to his mother.
**Examples of words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item**: These are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.
##### Words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item
>... for <u>your righteous judgments</u> are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
These are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.
><u>Your righteous judgments</u> are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULB)
The word "righteous" simply reminds us that God's judgments are righteous. It does not distinguish his righteous judgements from his unrighteous judgements, because all of his judgments are righteous.
>Can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son? - (Genesis 17:17-18 ULT)
>How can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17 ULB)
The phrase "who is ninety years old" is the reason that Abraham did not think that Sarah could bear a son. He was not distinguishing one woman named Sarah from another woman named Sarah who was a different age, and he was not telling anyone something new about her age. He simply did not think that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
>I will wipe away mankind <u>whom I have created</u> from the surface of the earth. (Genesis 6:7 ULT)
>I will wipe away mankind <u>whom I have created from the surface of the earth</u>. (Genesis 6:7 ULB)
The phrase "whom I have created" is a reminder of the relationship between God and mankind. It is the reason God had the right to wipe away mankind. There is not another mankind that God did not create.
The phrase "whom I have created from the surface of the earth" is a reminder of the relationship between God and mankind. It is the reason God had the right to wipe away mankind. There is not another mankind.
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the purpose of a phrase with a noun, then consider keeping the phrase and the noun together. For languages that use words or phrases with a noun only to distinguish one item from another, here are some strategies for translating phrases that are used to inform or remind.
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is just added information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
* **I hate those who serve <u>worthless</u> idols** (Psalm 31:6 ULT) - By saying "worthless idols," David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
* **I hate those who serve <u>worthless</u> idols** (Psalm 31:6 ULB) - By saying "worthless idols," David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
* <u>Because</u> idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.
* **... for your <u>righteous</u> judgments are good.** (Psalm 119:39 ULT)
* ... for your judgments are good <u>because</u> they are righteous.
* **Can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son?** (Genesis 17:17-18 ULT) - The phrase "who is ninety years old" is a reminder of Sarah's age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
* **Your <u>righteous</u> judgments are good.** (Psalm 119:39 ULB)
* Your judgments are good <u>because</u> they are righteous.
* **How can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son?** (Genesis 17:17-18 ULB) - The phrase "who is ninety years old" is a reminder of Sarah's age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
* Can Sarah bear a son <u>even when</u> she is ninety years old?
* **I will call on Yahweh, <u>who is worthy to be praised</u>.** (2 Samuel 22:4 ULB) - There is only one Yahweh. The phrase "who is worthy to be praised" gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
* I will call on Yahweh, <u>because</u> he is worthy to be praised.
* **I will call on Yahweh, <u>who is worthy to be praised</u>** (2 Samuel 22:4 ULT) - There is only one Yahweh. The phrase "who is worthy to be praised" gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
* I will call on Yahweh, <u>because</u> he is worthy to be praised
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is just added information.
* **You are my Son, <u>whom I love</u>. I am pleased with you.** (Luke 3:22 ULT)
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information.
* **You are my Son, <u>whom I love</u>. I am pleased with you.** (Luke 3:22 ULB)
* You are my Son. <u>I love you</u> and I am pleased with you.
* <u>Receiving my love</u>, you are my Son. I am pleased with you.

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A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of "not." Double negatives mean very different things in different languages. To translate sentences that have double negatives accurately and clearly, you need to know what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express this idea in your language.
### Description
Negative words are words that have in them the meaning "not." Examples are "no," "not," "none," "no one," "nothing," "nowhere," "never," "nor," "neither," and "without." Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean "not" such as the underlined parts of these words: "<u>un</u>happy," "<u>im</u>possible," and "use<u>less</u>."
Negative words are words that have in them the meaning "not." Examples are "no," "not," "none," "no one," "nothing," "nowhere," "never," "nor," "neither," "unless," "except," and "without." Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean "not" such as the underlined parts of these words: "<u>un</u>happy," "<u>im</u>possible," and "use<u>less</u>."
A double negative occurs when a sentence has two words that each express the meaning of "not."
>It is <u>not</u> that we do <u>not</u> have authority... (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULT)
A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of "not."
<blockquote>And this better confidence did <u>not</u> happen <u>without</u> the taking of an oath, ... (Hebrews 7:20 ULT.) </blockquote>
>Be sure of this—wicked people will <u>not</u> go <u>un</u>punished (Proverbs 11:21 ULT)
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Double negatives mean very different things in different languages.
* In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative emphasizes the negative. The following Spanish sentence *No ví a nadie* is literally, "I did not see no one." It has both the word 'no' next to the verb and 'nadie,' which means "no one." The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, "I did not see anyone."
* In some languages, a second negative cancels the first one, creating a positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" means "He is intelligent."
* In some languages the double negative creates a positive sentence, but it is a weak statement. So, "He is not unintelligent" means, "He is somewhat intelligent."
* In some languages, such as the languages of the Bible, the double negative can create a positive sentence, and often strengthens the statement. So, "He is not unintelligent" can mean "He is intelligent" or "He is very intelligent."
* In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative is used to create a negative sentence. The following Spanish sentence *No ví a nadie* is literally, "I did not see no one." It has both the word 'no' next to the verb and 'nadie,' which means "no one." The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, "I did not see anyone."
* In some languages, a double negative can be used simply to correct a misunderstanding that the listener might have about something that already includes a negative. So "He is not unintelligent" means simply that if the listener thinks that the man is unintelligent, then the listener is wrong. It does not indicate how intelligent the man is.
* In some languages a double negative can be used to create a weak positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is somewhat intelligent."
* In some languages, a double negative can be used to create a strong positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is very intelligent."
To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know both what a double negative means in the Bible and how to express the same idea in your language.
To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know both what a double negative means in a particular sentence and how to express the same idea in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
>... so that they may <u>not</u> be <u>un</u>fruitful. (Titus 3:14 ULT)
> For we do <u>not</u> have a high priest who can<u>not</u> feel sympathy for our weaknesses. (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)
This means "so that they will be fruitful."
>All things were made through him and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULT)
By using the double negative here, the writer showed that our high priest can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.
By using a double negative, John emphasized that the Son of God created absolutely everything.
> ... I do <u>not</u> want you to be <u>un</u>informed. (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)
By using the double negative, Paul showed that he wanted the people to be informed.
>All things were made through him, and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULB)
By using a double negative, John emphasized that the Son of God created everything.
>We did this <u>not</u> because we have <u>no</u> authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you. (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)
People could think that the reason that Paul and those with him worked hard was that they did not have authority to expect the people to meet their needs. Paul denied that. They had authority, but they had other reasons for working so hard.
### Translation Strategies
If double negatives are natural and are used to express the positive in your language, consider using them. Otherwise, you could consider these strategies:
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is simply to make a positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives so that it is positive.
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as "very" or "surely."
If double negatives are natural and are used to create a positive sentence in your language, consider using them. If not, here is another option.
1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is simply to make a positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives so that it is positive.
1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.
* **For we do <u>not</u> have a high priest who can<u>not</u> feel sympathy for our weaknesses.** (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)
* For we have a high priest who can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.
* **... I do <u>not</u> want you to be <u>un</u>informed.** (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)
* ... I want you to be informed.
* **All things were made through him, and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made.** (John 1:3 ULB)
* All things were made through him. He made absolutely everything that has been made.
* **We did this <u>not</u> because we have <u>no</u> authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you.** (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)
* Though we have authority, we did this in orer to be an example to you.
* **For we do <u>not</u> have a high priest who can<u>not</u> feel sympathy for our weaknesses.** (Hebrews 4:15 ULT)
* "For we have a high priest who can feel sympathy for our weaknesses."
* **... so that they may <u>not</u> be <u>un</u>fruitful.** (Titus 3:14 ULT)
* "... so that they may be fruitful."
1. If the purpose of a double negative in the Bible is to make a strong positive statement, and if it would not do that in your language, remove the two negatives and put in a strengthening word or phrase such as "very" or "surely."
* **Be sure of this—wicked people will <u>not</u> go <u>un</u>punished ...** (Proverbs 11:21 ULT)
* "Be sure of this—wicked people will <u>certainly</u> be punished ..."
* **All things were made through him and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made.** (John 1:3 ULT)
* "All things were made through him. He made <u>absolutely</u> everything that has been made."

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We are using the word "doublet" to refer to two words or very short phrases that mean the same thing or very close to the same thing and that are used together. Often they are joined with the word "and." Often they are used to emphasize or intensify the idea expressed by the two words.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
In some languages people do not use doublets. Or they may use doublets, but only in certain situations, so a doublet might not make sense in their language in some verses. In either case, translators may need to find some other way to express the meaning expressed by the doublet.
### Examples from the Bible
>King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u>. (1 Kings 1:1 ULT)
The phrases "old" and "advanced in years" mean the same thing. Together they mean that David was very old.
The underlined words mean the same thing. Together they mean that he was "very old."
>... King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u>.... (1 Kings 1:1 ULB)
>... he attacked two men <u>more righteous</u> and <u>better</u> than himself ... (1 Kings 2:32 ULT)
The phrases "more righteous" and "better" mean the same thing. Together they mean that the two men were much more righteous than the one who attacked them.
This means that they were "much more righteous" than he was.
>... he attacked two men <u>more righteous</u> and <u>better</u> than himself ... (1 Kings 2:32 ULB)
>You have decided to prepare <u>false</u> and <u>deceptive</u> words (Daniel 2:9 ULT)
The phrases "without blemish" and "without spot" mean the same thing. Together they mean that Jesus was like a lamb that did not have any blemish—not even one.
This means that they had prepared "many false things to say."
>... who was like a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>. (1 Peter 1:19 ULB)
>... as of a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>. (1 Peter 1:19 ULT)
This means that he was like a lamb that did not have any blemish--not even one.
### Translation Strategies
If a doublet would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using one. If not, consider these strategies.
1. Translate only one of the words.
1. Translate only one of the phrases.
1. If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words and add a word that intensifies it such as "very" or "great" or "many."
1. If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language's ways of doing that.
### Translation Strategies Applied
1. Translate only one of the words.
1. Translate only one of the phrase.
* **You have decided to prepare <u>false</u> and <u>deceptive</u> words** (Daniel 2:9 ULT)
* "You have decided to prepare <u>false</u> things to say."
* **... he attacked two men <u>more righteous</u> and <u>better</u> than himself ... (1 Kings 2:32 ULB)** (Daniel 2:9 ULB)
* ... he attacked two men who were <u>more righteous than himself ...
1. If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words and add a word that intensifies it such as "very" or "great" or "many."
* **King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u>.** (1 Kings 1:1 ULT)
* "King David was <u>very old</u>."
* **... King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u> ...** (1 Kings 1:1 ULB)
* ... King David was <u>very old</u> ...
1. If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language's ways of doing that.
* **... a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>...** (1 Peter 1:19 ULT) - English can emphasize this with "any" and "at all."
* " ... a lamb <u>without any blemish at all</u> ..."
* **... a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>...** (1 Peter 1:19 ULB)
* ... a lamb <u>without any blemish at all</u> ...

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### Description
Ellipsis is what happens when a speaker or writer leaves one or more words out of a sentence because he knows that the hearer or reader will understand the meaning of the sentence and fill in the words in his mind when he hears or reads the words that are there. The information that is omitted has usually already been stated in a preceding sentence or phrase.
Ellipsis is the omission of words that would normally be needed to make a sentence complete, but they are understood either by convention or because they were already used in a previous phrase.
>... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:5)
Here are two examples of elliptical sentences whose missing words are understood by convention. English speakers normally use the shorter forms.
* "Fire when ready" means "Fire when <u>you are</u> ready."
* "Back to the drawing board" means "<u>We need to go</u> back to the drawing board."
This is ellipsis because "sinners in the assembly of the righteous" is not a complete sentence. The speaker assumes that the hearer will understand what it is that sinners will not do in the assembly of the righteous by filling in the action from the previous clause.
Here are three examples of elliptical sentences whose missing words were already used in a previous phrase.
* "I drank water, and Bob milk" means "I drank water, and Bob <u>drank</u> milk.
* "I drank water, not milk" means "I drank water; <u>I did</u> not <u>drink</u> milk.
* "I drank water, and Tom did, too" means "I drank water, and Tom <u>drank water</u>, too."
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Readers who see incomplete sentences or phrases may not know what the missing information is if they do not use ellipsis in their language.
### Examples from the Bible
> ... when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, "What do you want me to do for you?" He said, "Lord, <u>that I might receive my sight</u>." (Luke 18:40-41 ULT)
In all of these examples, the missing words are understood because they were in the first phrase.
The man answered in an incomplete sentence because he wanted to be polite and not directly ask Jesus for healing. He knew that Jesus would understand that the only way he could receive his sight would be for Jesus to heal him.
>For Adam was formed first, <u>then Eve</u>. (1 Timothy 2:13 ULB)
>He makes Lebanon skip like a calf <u>and Sirion like a young ox</u>. (Psalm 29:6 ULT)
The underlined phrase above means, "then Eve was formed."
The writer wants his words to be few and to make good poetry. He did not say that Yahweh makes Sirion skip like a young ox because he knew that his readers could fill in the information themselves.
>... his works were evil and <u>his brother's righteous</u>. (1 John 3:12 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "his brother's works were righteous."
>So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, <u>nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous</u>. (Psalm 1:5)
The underlind phrase above means "sinners will not stand in the assembly of the righteous."
>He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and <u>Sirion like a young ox</u>. (Psalm 29:6 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "he makes Sirion skip like a young ox."
> Then Saul said to his armor bearer, "Draw your sword and thrust me through with it. ..." <u>But his armor bearer would not</u>, for he was very afraid. (1 Samuel 31:4 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "But his armor bearer would not draw his sword and thrust Saul through with it."
### Translation Strategies
@ -31,13 +50,9 @@ If ellipsis would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consid
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
* **... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor <u>sinners in the assembly</u> of the righteous.** (Psalm 1:5)
* ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and <u>sinners will not stand in the assembly</u> of the righteous
* **... when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, "What do you want me to do for you?" He said, "Lord, <u>that I might receive my sight</u>."** (Luke 18:40-41)
* ... when the blind man was near, Jesus asked him, "What do you want me to do for you?" He said, "Lord, <u>I want you to heal me</u> that I might receive my sight."
* **... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, <u>nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous</u>.** (Psalm 1:5)
* ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor <u>will</u> sinners <u>stand</u> in the assembly of the righteous.
* ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and sinners <u>will not stand</u> in the assembly of the righteous.
* **He makes Lebanon skip like a calf <u>and Sirion like a young ox</u>.** (Psalm 29:6)
* He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and <u>he makes</u> Sirion <u>skip</u> like a young ox.

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A euphemism is a mild or polite way of referring to something that is unpleasant, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable, such as death or activities usually done in private.
### Definition
### Reasons this is a translation issue
>... they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULT)
This means that Saul and his sons "were dead". It is a euphemism because the important thing was not that Saul and his sons had fallen but that they were dead. Sometimes people do not like to speak directly about death because it is unpleasant.
### Reason this is a translation issue
Different languages use different euphemisms. If the target language does not use the same euphemism as in the source language, readers may not understand what it means and they may think that the writer means only what the words literally say.
Different languages use different euphemisms. If the target language does not use the same euphemism as in the source language, readers may not understand what it means, and they may think that the writer means only what the words literally say.
### Examples from the Bible
>... where there was a cave. Saul went inside to relieve himself ... (1 Samuel 24:3 ULT)
The phrase "to cover his feet" is a polite way of speaking about what one does when he uses the toilet.
The original hearers would have understood that Saul went into the cave to use it as a toilet, but the writer wanted to avoid offending or distracting them, so **he did not say specifically** what Saul did or what he left in the cave.
>... where there was a cave. Saul went inside <u>to cover his feet</u>. (1 Samuel 24:3 ULB)
> Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not slept with any man?” (Luke 1:34 ULT)
The phrase "fallen" is a polite way of referring to dying in battle.
>... they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULB)
The phrase "know a man" is a polite way of referring to having sexual relations with a man.
>Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not <u>known any man</u>?” (Luke 1:34 ULB)
In order **to be polite**, Mary uses a euphemism to say that she has never had sexual intercourse with a man.
### Translation Strategies
If euphemism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
If the euphemism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Use a euphemism from your own culture.
1. State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
@ -33,16 +32,14 @@ If euphemism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consi
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use a euphemism from your own culture.
* **... where there was a cave. Saul went inside to <u>relieve himself</u>.** (1 Samuel 24:3 ULT) - Some languages might use euphemisms like these:
* "...where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to dig a hole</u>"
* "...where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to have some time alone</u>"
* **Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not <u>slept with any man</u>?”** (Luke 1:34 ULT)
* Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since <u>I do not know a man</u>?” - (This is the euphemism used in the original Greek)
* **... where there was a cave. Saul went inside <u>to cover his feet</u>.** (1 Samuel 24:3 ULB) - Some languages might use euphemisms like these:
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to releave himself</u>.
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to dig a hole</u>.
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to have some time alone</u>.
* **Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since <u>I have not known any man</u>?”** (Luke 1:34 ULB)
* Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since <u>I have not slept with a man</u>?” - (This is the euphemism used in the original Greek)
1. State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
* **they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa.** (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULT)
* "they found Saul and his sons <u>dead</u> on Mount Gilboa."
* **... they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa.** (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULB)
* ... they found Saul and his sons <u>dead</u> on Mount Gilboa.

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In the Bible, events are not always told in the order in which they occurred. Sometimes the author wanted to discuss something that happened at an earlier time than the event that he just talked about. This can be confusing to the reader.
**Reason this is a translation issue:** Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.
### Examples from the Bible
> But then Herod ... had John locked up in prison. Now it came about, while all the people were being baptized by John, that Jesus also was baptized. (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
>... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized.... (Luke 3:19-21 ULB)
This could sound like John baptized Jesus after John was locked up in prison, but John baptized Jesus before John was locked up in prison.
Jesus was baptized by John. The verses above could sound like John baptized Jesus after John was locked up in prison, but John baptized Jesus before John was locked up in prison.
> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets… But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets. ... But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
This could sound like Joshua gave the order not to shout after the army had already started their march, but he had given that order before they started marching.
>Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
>Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
This sounds like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, but the seals that lock the scroll must be broken before the scroll can be unrolled.
This could sound like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, but the seals that lock the scroll must be broken before the scroll can be unrolled.
### Translation Strategies
@ -28,26 +30,19 @@ This sounds like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, b
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If your language uses phrases, time words or tenses to show that an event happened before the one just mentioned, consider using one of them.
* **<sup>20</sup> But then Herod ... had John locked up in prison. <sup>21</sup> Now it came about, while all the people were being baptized by John, that Jesus also was baptized.** (Luke 3:20-21 ULT)
* <sup>20</sup> But then Herod ... had John locked up in prison. <sup>21</sup> <u>Before John was put in prison,</u> while all the people were being baptized by John, Jesus also was baptized.
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before the one just mentioned, consider using one of them.
* **... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, that Jesus also was baptized....** (Luke 3:29-21 ULB)
* ... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now <u>before John was put in prison,</u> when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized....
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
* Who is worthy to open the scroll <u>after</u> breaking its seals?
1. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that.
* **<sup>8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...<sup>10</sup> But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
* <sup>8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...<sup>10</sup> But Joshua <u>had commanded</u> the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout.
* **<sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... <sup>10</sup>But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
* <sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...<sup>10</sup>But Joshua <u>had commanded</u> the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout.
1. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occur, consider reordering the events. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6).
* **<sup>8</sup> Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...<sup>10</sup> But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULT)
* <sup>8-10</sup> Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout." Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh, as they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ...
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULT)
* **<sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... <sup>10</sup>But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
* <sup>8-10</sup>Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout." Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets....
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
* Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_events.

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### Description
Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULT and UST, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people say helps us understand what feelings they were expressing. In the example below from Matthew 8, the speakers were terribly afraid. In the example from Matthew 9, the speakers were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before.
Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULB and UDB, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people say helps us understand what feelings they were expressing.
>Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULT)
>When the demon had been driven out, the mute man spoke. The crowds were astonished and said, "This has never been seen before in Israel!" (Matthew 9:33 ULT)
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Languages have different ways of showing that a sentence communicates strong emotion.
### Examples from the Bible
Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling. The sentences below have "Oh" and "Ah." The word "oh" here shows the speaker's amazement.
#### Some exclamations have no special words that show the feeling.
><u>Oh</u>, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULT)
>Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULB)
The word "Ah" below shows that Gideon was very frightened.
>Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULT)
In the sentence above, the speakers were terribly afraid and probably shouted or cried out what they were saying.
Some exclamations start with a question word such as "how" or "why," even though they are not questions. The sentence below shows that the speaker is amazed at how unsearchable God's judgments are.
>When the demon had been driven out, the mute man spoke. The crowds were astonished and said, "This has never been seen before in Israel!" (Matthew 9:33 ULB)
><u>How</u> unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULT)
In the example above the speakers were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before. Their voices probably showed how they felt.
Some exclamations in the Bible do not have a main verb. The exclamation below shows that the speaker is disgusted with the person he is speaking to.
####Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling.
><u>Oh</u>, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "oh" shows the speaker's amazement.
>Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "Ah" shows that Gideon was very frightened.
####Some exclamations begin with a question word, even though they are not questions.
><u>How</u> unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "How" shows that the speaker is amazed at God's judgments.
####Some exclamations do not have a main verb.
>You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULB)
The exclamation above does not have a verb. It shows that the speaker is disgusted with the person he is speaking to.
>You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
@ -40,34 +53,27 @@ Some exclamations in the Bible do not have a main verb. The exclamation below sh
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is "is" or "are."
* **You worthless person!** (Matthew 5:22 ULT)
* "You <u>are</u> such a worthless person!"
* **Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God!** (Romans 11:33 ULT)
* "Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God <u>are</u> so deep!"
* **You worthless person!** (Matthew 5:22 ULB)
* You <u>are</u> such a worthless person!
* **Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God!** (Romans 11:33 ULB)
* Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God <u>are</u> so deep!
1. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling. The word "wow" below shows that they were astonished. The expression "Oh no" shows that something terrible or frightening has happened.
* **They were absolutely astonished, saying, "He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf to hear and the mute to speak."** (Mark 7:36 ULT)
* "They were absolutely astonished, saying, "<u>Wow</u>! He has done everything well. He even makes the deaf to hear and the mute to speak." "
* **Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
* "__Oh no__, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"
* **They were extremely astonished, saying, "He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak."** (Mark 7:37 ULB)
* They were extremely astonished, saying, "<u>Wow</u>! He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak."
* **Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* __Oh no__, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
1. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
* **<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
* **<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* Lord Yahweh, <u>what will happen to me</u>? For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"
* <u>Help</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
1. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
* **How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering!** (Romans 11:33 ULT)
* "His judgements are <u>so</u> unsearchable and his ways are <u>far</u> beyond discovering!"
* **How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering!** (Romans 11:33 ULB)
* His judgements are <u>so</u> unsearchable and his ways are <u>far</u> beyond discovering!
1. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
* **Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"** (Judges 6:22 ULT)
* "Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. <u>He was terrified</u> and said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULT)
* **Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. <u>Gideon was terrified</u> and said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22 ULB)

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### Description
Some languages have more than one form of "we:" an **inclusive** form that means "I and you" and an **exclusive** form that means "I and someone else but <u>not you</u>." The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for "us," "our," "ours," and "ourselves." Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these. Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms for these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form to use.
Some languages have more than one form of "we:" an **inclusive** form that means "I and you" and an **exclusive** form that means "I and someone else but <u>not you</u>." The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for "us," "our," "ours," and "ourselves." Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these.
See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is talking to. The yellow highlight shows who the inclusive "we" and the exclusive "we" refer to.
@ -10,24 +10,24 @@ See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is tal
![](https://cdn.door43.org/ta/jpg/vocabulary/we_us_exclusive.jpg)
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for "we." Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of "we" will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form of "we" to use.
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for "we." Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form of to use.
### Examples from the Bible
>They said, “<u>We</u> have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless <u>we</u> went and bought food for all this crowd of people.” (Luke 9:13 ULT)
>They said, “<u>We</u> have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless <u>we</u> go and buy food for all these people.” (Luke 9:13 ULB)
In the first clause, the disciples are telling Jesus how much food they have among them, so this "we" could be the inclusive form or the exclusive form. In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that "we" would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.
><u>we</u> have seen, and bear witness, and declare to you the eternal life, which was with the Father, and was manifested to <u>us</u> (1 John 1:2 ULT)
>... <u>we</u> have seen it, and <u>we</u> bear witness to it. <u>We</u> are announcing to you the eternal life.... (1 John 1:2 ULB)
John is telling people who have not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles have seen. So languages that have exclusive forms of "we" and "us" would use the exclusive forms in this verse.
John is telling people who have not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles have seen. So languages that have an exclusive form of "we" would use it in this verse.
>… the shepherds said one to each other, "Let <u>us</u> now go to Bethlehem, and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to <u>us</u>." (Luke 2:15 ULT)
>... the shepherds said one to each other, "Let <u>us</u> now go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to <u>us</u>." (Luke 2:15 ULB)
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said "us," they were <u>including</u> the people they were speaking to - one another.
>Now it happened on one of those days that Jesus and his disciples entered into a boat, and he said to them, "Let <u>us</u> go over to the other side of the lake." Then they set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULT)
>Now one day he got into a boat with his disciples, and he said to them, "Let <u>us</u> go over to the other side of the lake." They set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULB)
When Jesus said "us," he was referring to himself and to the disciples he was speaking to, so this would be the inclusive form.

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An extended metaphor occurs when someone speaks of a situation as if it were a different situation. He does this in order to effectively describe the first situation by implying that in some important way it is similar to the other. The second situation has multiple **images** of people, things, and actions that represent those in the first situation.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not realize that the images represent other things.
* People may not be familiar with the things that are used as images.
* Extended metaphors are often so profound that it would be impossible for a translator to show all of the meaning generated by the metaphor.
#### Translation Principles
### Translation Principles
* Make the meaning of the extended metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning more clear to the target audience than it was to the original audience.
* When someone uses an extended metaphor, the images are an important part of what he is trying to say.
* If the target audience is not familiar with some of the images, you will need to find some way of helping them understand the images so they can understand the whole extended metaphor.
### Examples from the Bible
In Psalm 23:1-4, the writer says that God's concern and care for his people can be pictured as the care that a shepherd has for his flock of sheep. Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
@ -27,28 +28,26 @@ In Psalm 23:1-4, the writer says that God's concern and care for his people can
>he <u>guides me</u> along right paths for his name's sake.
><sup>4</sup>Even though I walk through a valley of darkest shadow,
>I will not fear harm since you are with me;
>your rod and your staff comfort me. (ULT)
>your rod and your staff comfort me. (ULB)
In Isaiah 5:1-7, Isaiah presents God's disappointment with his people as the disappointment that a farmer would feel if his vineyard only produced bad fruit. Farmers care for their gardens, but if they only produce bad fruit, farmers eventually stop caring for them. Verses 1 through 6 appear to be simply about a farmer and his vineyard, but verse 7 makes it clear that it is about God and his people.
><sup>1</sup>... My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
><sup>2</sup>He spaded it and removed the stones, and planted it with the choicest vine.
><sup>2</sup>He spaded it, removed the stones, and planted it with an excellent kind of vine.
>He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes.
><sup>3</sup>So now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah;
>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced wild grapes.
><sup>3</sup>So now, inhabitant of Jerusalem and men of Judah;
>judge between me and my vineyard.
><sup>4</sup>What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it?
>When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes?
><sup>5</sup> Now I will inform you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge;
>I will turn it into a pasture; I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on.
><sup>6</sup>I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. But briers and thorns will spring up,
><sup>5</sup>Now I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge,
>I will turn it into a pasture, I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on.
><sup>6</sup>I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. Instead, briers and thorns will spring up.
>I will also command the clouds not to rain on it.
><sup>7</sup>For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel,
>and the men of Judah his pleasant planting;
>he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
>for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help. (ULT)
>and the man of Judah his pleasant planting;
>he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help. (ULB)
### Translation Strategies
@ -60,52 +59,18 @@ Consider using the same extended metaphor if your readers will understand it in
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using "like" or "as." It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two. See Psalm 23:1-2 as an example:
>**Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing.**
>**He makes <u>me</u> to lie down in green pastures;**
>**<u>he leads me</u> beside tranquil water.** (ULT)
Can be translated as:
> "Yahweh is <u>like</u> a shepherd to me, so I will lack nothing.
> <u>Like</u> a shepherd who makes his sheep lie down in green pastures and leads them by peaceful waters,
> Yahweh helps me to rest peacefully."
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using "like" or "as." It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
* **Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. He makes <u>me</u> to lie down in green pastures; <u>he leads me</u> beside tranquil water.** (Psalm 23:1-2 ULB)
* Yahweh is <u>like</u> a shepherd to me, so I will lack nothing. <u>Like</u> a shepherd who makes his sheep lie down in green pastures and leads them by peaceful waters, Yahweh helps me to rest peacefully.
1. If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
>**My well beloved had a <u>vineyard</u> on a very fertile hill.**
>**He <u>spaded</u> it and removed the stones, and planted it with the <u>choicest</u> vine.**
>**He built <u>a tower</u> in the middle of it, and also built a <u>winepress</u>.**
>**He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced <u>wild grapes</u>.**(Isaiah 5:1-2 ULT)
May be translated as:
> "My well beloved had a <u>grapevine garden</u> on a very fertile hill.
> He <u>dug up the ground</u> and removed the stones, and planted it with <u>the best grapevines</u>.
> He built a <u>watchtower</u> in the middle of it, and also built <u>a tank where he could crush the juice out of the grapes</u>.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced <u>wild grapes that were not good for making wine</u>."
* **My well beloved had a <u>vineyard</u> on a very fertile hill. He <u>spaded</u> it, removed the stones, and planted it with an <u>excellent kind of vine</u>. He built <u>a tower</u> in the middle of it, and also built a <u>winepress</u>. He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced <u>wild grapes</u>.** (Isaiah 5:1-2 ULB)
* My well beloved had a <u>grapevine garden</u> on a very fertile hill. He <u>dug up the ground</u> and removed the stones, and planted it with <u>the best grapevines</u>. He built a <u>watchtower</u> in the middle of it, and also built <u>a tank where he could crush the juice out of the grapes</u>. He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced <u>wild grapes that were not good for making wine</u>."
1. If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
* **Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing.** (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
* Yahweh <u>cares for me</u> like a shepherd who cares for his sheep, so I will lack nothing.
* **For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>is</u> the house of Israel, and the man of Judah his pleasant planting; he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help.** (Isaiah 5:7 ULB)
* For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>represents</u> the house of Israel, and the men of Judah <u>are like</u> his pleasant planting; he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, there was a cry for help. <u>So as a farmer stops caring for a vineyard that produces bad fruit, <u>Yahweh will stop protecting Israel and Judah.</u>
Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing.** (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
* "Yahweh <u>cares for me</u> like a shepherd that cares for his sheep, so I will lack nothing."
>**For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>is</u> the house of Israel,**
>**and the men of Judah his pleasant planting;**
>**he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;**
>**for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.** (Isaiah 5:7 ULT)
Can be translated as:
> For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>represents</u> the house of Israel,
> and the men of Judah <u>are like</u> his pleasant planting;
> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.
OR
* <u>So as a farmer stops caring for a grapevine garden that produces bad fruit</u>,
* <u>Yahweh will stop protecting</u> Israel and Judah,
* <u>because they do not do what is right</u>.
* he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
* for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.

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* **Assumed knowledge** is whatever a speaker assumes his audience knows before he speaks and gives them some kind of information. The speaker gives the audience information in two ways:
* **Explicit information** is what the speaker states directly.
* **Implicit information** is what the speaker does not state directly because he expects his audience to be able to learn it from what he says.
### Description
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is **explicit information**.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand this information. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called **assumed knowledge**.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand what he says. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called **assumed knowledge**.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. Information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly is **implicit information.**
Often, the audience understands this **implicit information** by combining what they already know (**assumed knowledge**) with the **explicit information** that the speaker tells them directly.
Often, the audience understands this **implicit information** by combining what they already know (**assumed knowledge**) with what the speaker tells them directly (**explicit information**).
### Reasons this is a translation issue
All three kinds of information are part of the speaker's message. If one of these kinds of information is missing, then the audience will not understand the message. Because the target translation is in a language that is very different than the biblical languages and made for an audience that lives in a very different time and place than the people in the Bible, many times the **assumed knowledge** or the **implicit information** is missing from the message. In other words, modern readers do not know everything that the original speakers and hearers in the Bible knew. When these things are important for understanding the message, you can include this information in the text or in a footnote.
All three kinds of information (assumed knowledge, explicit information, and implicit information) are part of the speaker's message. If the audience does not have the knowledge that the speaker assumes they have, they will have trouble understanding the whole message. They may understand some of the explicit information, but they will have trouble learning the implicit information.
The authors of the Bible books wrote for particular audiences who lived in particular places long ago. And the speakers in the Bible spoke to particular audiences who lived long ago. Modern readers do not know everything that the original audiences knew; they lack some of the assumed information, and this makes it hard for them to understand the whole message.
### Examples from the Bible
>Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:20 ULT)
>Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:20 ULB)
Jesus did not say what foxes and birds use holes and nests for, because he assumed that the scribe would have known that foxes sleep in holes in the ground and birds sleep in their nests. This is **assumed knowledge**.
Jesus did not directly say here "I am the Son of Man" but, if the scribe did not already know it, then that fact would be **implicit information** that he could learn because Jesus referred to himself that way. Also, Jesus did not state explicitly that he travelled a lot and did not have a house that he slept in every night. That is **implicit information** that the scribe could learn when Jesus said that he had nowhere to lay his head.
> Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the <u>day of judgment</u> than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULT)
>Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the <u>day of judgment</u> than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULB)
Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all **assumed knowledge**.
An important piece of **implicit information** here is that because the people he was speaking to did not repent, they would be judged more severely than the people of Tyre and Sidon would be judged.
>Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands when they eat</u>. (Matthew 15:2 ULT)
>Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands when they eat</u>. (Matthew 15:2 ULB)
One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating. People thought that in order to be righteous, they had to follow all the traditions of the elders. This was **assumed knowledge** that the Pharisees who were speaking to Jesus expected him to know. By saying this, they were accusing his disciples of not following the traditions, and thus not being righteous. This is **implicit information** that they wanted him to understand from what they said.
### Translation Strategies
If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the message, along with any important implicit information that goes with the explicit information, then it is good to leave that knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because one of these is missing for them, then follow these strategies:
If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the full message (with the explicit and implicit information) then it is good to leave the assumed knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because they lack the assumed knowledge, then follow one of these strategies:
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.
1. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge as explicit information.
* **Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:20 ULT) - Assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.
* **Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:20 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
* Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes to live in</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests to live in</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep."
* **it will be more tolerable for <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - Assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
* ... it will be more tolerable for <u>those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked</u>, at the day of judgment than for you
* Or:
* ... it will be more tolerable for those <u>wicked cities Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you
* **Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands</u> when they eat.** (Matthew 15:2 ULT) - Assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
* **But it will be more tolerable for <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you.** (Matthew 11:22 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
* But it will be more tolerable for <u>those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked</u>, at the day of judgment than for you.
* But it will be more tolerable for those <u>wicked cities Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you.
* **Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands</u> when they eat.** (Matthew 15:2 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
* Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness</u> when they eat.
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not know certain implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
* **Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULT) - Implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, he would have to live like Jesus without a house.
1. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
* **Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULB) - Implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, he would have to live like Jesus without a house.
* Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but <u>I, the Son of Man</u>, have <u>no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live</u>."
* **it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULT) - Implicit information is that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. This can be made explicit.
* At the day of judgment, God will <u>punish Tyre and Sidon</u>, cities whose people were very wicked, <u>less severely than he will punish you</u>
* At the day of judgment, God will <u>punish you more severely</u> than Tyre and Sidon, cities whose people were very wicked.
* **If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULB) - Implicit information is that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. These things can be made explicit.
* If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, <u>God will punish you more severely</u> than Tyre and Sidon, <u>those cities whose people were very wicked.</u>
* If the mighty deeds which were done in you had been done in <u>the wicked cities of Tyre and Sidon</u>, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, <u>God will punish them less severely<u> than he will punish you.
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.

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Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into other languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that the other languages would leave as implicit information.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
If you translate all of the explicit information from the source language into the explicit information in the target language, it could sound foreign, unnatural, or perhaps even unintelligent if the target language would not make that information explicit. Instead, it is best to leave that kind of information implicit in the target language.
If you translate all of the explicit information from the source language into the target language explicitly, it could sound foreign, unnatural, or perhaps even unintelligent if the target language would not make that information explicit. Instead, it is best to leave that kind of information implicit in the target language.
### Examples from the Bible
@ -17,29 +16,23 @@ In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to start most sentences with a conjunction suc
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
>The centurion <u>answered and said</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…” (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
>The centurion <u>answered and said</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof." (Matthew 8:8 ULB)
In the biblical languages, it was normal to introduce direct speech with two verbs of speaking. One verb indicated the mode of address, and the other introduced the words of the speaker. English speakers do not do this, so it is very unnatural and confusing to use two verbs. For the English speaker, the idea of speaking is included in the idea of answering. Using two verbs in English implies two separate speeches, rather than just one. So in English, it is better to use only one verb of speaking.
### Translation Strategies
1. If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information. If it does not sound natural, you can follow this strategy.
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information.
* There would be no change to the text using this strategy, so no examples are given here.
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
* **And Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower to burn it with fire.** (Judges 9:52 ESV)
* Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to burn it</u>. Or <u>…to set it on fire</u>.
* Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to burn it</u>.
* Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to set it on fire</u>.
In English, it is clear that the action of this verse follows the action of the previous verse without the use of the connector “and” at the beginning, so it was omitted. Also, the words “with fire” were left out, because this information is communicated implicitly by the word “burn.” An alternative translation for “to burn it” is “to set it on fire.” It is not natural in English to use both “burn” and “fire,” so the English translator should choose only one of them. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How would the door burn?” If they knew it was by fire, then they have understood the implicit information. Or, if you chose the second option, you could ask, “What happens to a door that is set on fire?” If the readers answer, “It burns,” then they have understood the implicit information.
* **The centurion answered and said, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof."** (Matthew 8:8 ULB)
* The centurion <u>answered</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof."
* **The centurion answered and said, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…”** (Matthew 8:8 ULT)
* The centurion <u>answered</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof…”
In English, the information that the centurion answered by speaking is included in the verb “answered,” so the verb “said” can be left implicit. You can test if the readers understood the implicit information by asking, “How did the centurion answer?” If they knew it was by speaking, then they have understood the implicit information.

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Sometimes it is better not to state assumed knowledge or implicit information explicitly.
### Description
Sometimes it is better not to state assumed knowledge or implicit information explicitly. This page gives some direction about when not to do this.
#### Translation Principles
### Translation principles
* If a speaker or author intentionally left something unclear, do not try to make it more clear.
* If the original audience did not understand what the speaker meant, do not make it so clear that your readers would find it strange that the original audience did not understand.
@ -16,14 +14,14 @@ Sometimes it is better not to state assumed knowledge or implicit information ex
### Examples from the Bible
>Out of the eater was something to eat;
>out of the strong was something sweet. (Judges 14:14 ULT)
>out of the strong was something sweet. (Judges 14:14 ULB)
This was a riddle. Samson purposely said this in a way that it would be hard for his enemies to know what it meant. Do not make it clear that the eater and the strong thing was a lion and that the sweet thing to eat was honey.
>Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." … (Matthew 16:6,7 ULT)
>Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." (Matthew 16:6,7 ULB)
Possible implicit information here is that the disciples should beware of the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. But Jesus' disciples did not understand this. They thought that Jesus was talking about real yeast and bread. So it would not be appropriate to state explicitly that the word "yeast" here refers to false teaching. The disciples did not understand what Jesus meant until they heard what Jesus said in Matthew 16:11 -
> "How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11,12 ULT)
>"How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11,12 ULB)
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.

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In some parts of the Bible, the words "men", "brothers" and "sons" refer only to men. In other parts of the Bible, those words include both men and women. When the writer meant both men and women, translators need to translate it in a way that does not limit the meaning to men.
### Description
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. For example, the Bible sometimes says '<u>brothers</u>' when it refers to both brothers and sisters.
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" and "his" can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman.
Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman. In the example below, the pronoun is "his", but it is not limited to males.
>A wise child makes <u>his</u> father rejoice
>but a foolish child brings grief to <u>his</u> mother. (Proverbs 10:1 ULT)
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* When reading a sentence in the Bible, the translator needs to be able to determine whether the use of a word that normally refers to men refers only to men or to both men and women.
* In some cultures words like "man," "brother," and "son" can only be used to refer to men. If those words are used in a translation in a more general way, people will think that what is being said does not apply to women.
* In some cultures, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" can only refer to men. If a masculine pronoun is used, people will think that what is said does not apply to women.
#### Translation Principles
### Translation Principles
When a statement applies to both men and women, translate it in such a way that people will be able to understand that it applies to both.
### Examples from the Bible
> We want you to know, <u>brothers</u>, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULT)
>We want you to know, <u>brothers</u>, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULB)
This verse is addressing the believers in Corinth, not only men, but **men and women**.
> Then said Jesus to his disciples, "If anyone wants to follow me, <u>he</u> must deny <u>himself</u>, take up <u>his</u> cross, and follow me." (Matthew 16:24-26 ULT)
>For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>sons</u> of God. (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)
When Paul wrote "sons of God," he was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
>Then said Jesus to his disciples, "If anyone wants to follow me, <u>he</u> must deny <u>himself</u>, take up <u>his</u> cross, and follow me." (Matthew 16:24-26 ULB)
Jesus was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The underlined words below are specifically about men.
>Moses said, 'If a <u>man</u> dies, having no children, <u>his</u> <u>brother</u> must marry <u>his</u> wife and have a child for <u>his</u> <u>brother</u>.' (Mark 22:24 ULT)
>Moses said, 'If a <u>man</u> dies, having no children, <u>his</u> <u>brother</u> must marry <u>his</u> wife and have a child for <u>his</u> <u>brother</u>.' (Mark 22:24 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
@ -43,18 +41,17 @@ If people would understand that that masculine words like "man," "brother," and
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use nouns that can be used for both men and women.
* **The wise <u>man</u> dies just like the fool dies.** (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULT)
* "The wise <u>person</u> dies just like the fool dies."
* "Wise <u>people</u> die just like fools die."
* **The wise <u>man</u> dies just like the fool dies.** (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULB)
* The wise <u>person</u> dies just like the fool dies.
* Wise <u>people</u> die just like fools die.
* **For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>sons</u> of God.** (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)
* For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>children</u> of God.
1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
* **For we do not want you to be ignorant, <u>brothers</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia.** (2 Corinthians 1:8) - Paul was writing this letter to both men and women.
* "For we do not want you to be ignorant, <u>brothers and sisters</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia." (2 Corinthians 1:8)
* **For we do not want you to be uninformed, <u>brothers</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia.** (2 Corinthians 1:8)
* For we do not want you to be uninformed, <u>brothers and sisters</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8)
1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
* **If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me."** (Matthew 16:24 ULT) - English speakers can change the masculine singular pronouns, "he," "himself," and "his" to plural pronouns that do not mark gender, "they," "themselves," and "their" in order to show that it applies to all people, not just men.
* "If <u>people</u> want to follow me, <u>they</u> must deny <u>themselves</u>, take up <u>their</u> cross, and follow me."
* **If anyone wants to follow me, <u>he</u> must deny <u>himself</u>, take up <u>his</u> cross, and follow me."** (Matthew 16:24 ULB)
* If <u>people</u> want to follow me, <u>they</u> must deny <u>themselves</u>, take up <u>their</u> cross, and follow me.

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### Description
Generic noun phrases refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things. This happens frequently in proverbs, because proverbs tell about things that are true about people in general.
>Can <u>a man</u> walk on hot coals without scorching his feet?
>So is <u>the man who goes into his neighbor's wife</u>;
><u>the one who has relations with her</u> will not go unpunished. (Proverbs 6:28 ULT)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to a specific man. They refer to any man who does these things.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Different languages have different ways of showing that noun phrases refer to something in general. Translators should refer to these general ideas in ways that are natural in their language.
### Examples from the Bible
>The <u>one who does what is right</u> is kept away from trouble and it comes upon <u>the wicked</u> instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULT)
>The <u>righteous person</u> is kept away from trouble and it comes upon <u>the wicked</u> instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULB)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to any specific people but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
>People curse <u>the man who refuses to sell them grain</u>. (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
>People curse <u>the man who refuses to sell them grain</u>.... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
This does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who refuses to sell grain.
>Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>. (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
>Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>. (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)
The phrase "a good man" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who is good. The phrase "a man who makes evil plans" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who makes evil plans.
### Translation Strategies
If your language can use the same wording as in the ULT to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. Here are some strategies you might use.
If your language can use the same wording as in the ULB to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. Here are some strategies you might use.
1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.
@ -40,28 +33,23 @@ If your language can use the same wording as in the ULT to refer to people or th
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.
* **Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>.** (Proverbs 12:2 ULT)
* "Yahweh gives favor to <u>the good man</u>, but he condemns <u>the man who makes evil plans</u>." (Proverbs 12:2)
* **Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>.** (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)
* Yahweh gives favor to <u>the good man</u>, but he condemns <u>the man who makes evil plans</u>. (Proverbs 12:2)
1. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
* "People curse <u>a man</u> who refuses to sell them grain"
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>a man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...
1. Use the word "any, as in "any person" or "anyone."
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
* "People curse <u>any man</u> who refuses to sell them grain."
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>any man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...
1. Use the plural form, as in "people" (or in this sentence, "men").
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
* "People curse <u>men</u> who refuse to sell them grain"
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>men</u> who refuse to sell them grain ...
1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain.** (Proverbs 11:26 ULT)
* "People curse <u>whoever</u> refuses to sell them grain."
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>whoever</u> refuses to sell them grain ...
* People curse <u>those</u> who refuse to sell them grain ...

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### Description
Different languages have different ways of determining whether to use the words "go" or "come" and whether to use the words "take" or "bring" when talking about motion. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say "I'm coming," while Spanish speakers say "I'm going." You will need to translate the words "go" and "come" (and also "take" and "bring") in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words "go" and "come" or "take" and "bring" differently than your language uses them. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say "I'm coming," while Spanish speakers say "I'm going." You will need to translate these words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words "go" and "come" or "take" and "bring" differently than your language uses them. If these words are not translated in the way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving.
If these words are not translated in a way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving in.
### Examples from the Bible
>Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
>Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ... (Genesis 7:1 ULB)
In some languages, this would lead people to think that Yahweh was in the ark.
>But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you. Then you will be free from my oath. (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
>But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULB)
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham's relatives lived far away, from where he and his servant were standing and he wanted his servant to <u>go</u> to them, not <u>come</u> toward Abraham.
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham's relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing, and he wanted his servant to move toward them, not toward Abraham.
>When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ... (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
>When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ... (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)
Moses is speaking to the people in the wilderness. They had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, "When you have <u>gone</u> into the land..."
Moses was speaking to the people in the wilderness. Moses and the people had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, "When you have <u>gone</u> into the land..."
>Joseph and Mary <u>brought</u> him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULT)
>... they <u>brought</u> him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULB)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary <u>took</u> or <u>carried</u> Jesus to the temple.
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary <u>took</u> or <u>carried</u> Jesus up to the temple.
>Behold, there came a man named Jairus, and he was one of the leaders of the synagogue. Jairus fell down at Jesus' feet and implored him to <u>come</u> to his house, (Luke 8:41 ULT)
>Behold, a man named Jairus ... came and fell down at Jesus' feet, and he begged him to <u>come</u> to his house ... (Luke 8:41 ULB)
The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to <u>go</u> with him to his house.
>Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not <u>go</u> out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UST)
>Some time after this his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not go out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UDB)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Elizabeth did not <u>come</u> out in public.
### Translation Strategies
If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.
If the word used in the ULB would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.
1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
@ -44,21 +42,12 @@ If the word used in the ULT would be natural and give the right meaning in your
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.
* **But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you.** (Genesis 24:41 ULT)
* **But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you.** (Genesis 24:41 ULB)
* But you will be free from my oath if you <u>go</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you.
* **Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not <u>go</u> out in public for five months.** (Luke 1:24 UST)
* Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not <u>come</u> out in public for five months.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
* **When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ...** (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULT)
* "When you have <u>arrived</u> in the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ..."
* **Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ...** (Genesis 7:1 ULT)
* "Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Enter</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ..."
* **Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not <u>go</u> out in public for five months.** (Luke 1:24 UST)
* Some time after this, his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not <u>appear</u> in public for five months.
* **When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you ...** (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)
* When you have <u>arrived</u> in the land that Yahweh your God gives you ...
* **Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ...** (Genesis 7:1 ULB)
* Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Enter</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ...

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@ -5,7 +5,7 @@ Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put w
**Sentences** - When we speak, we organize our thoughts in sentences. A sentence usually has a complete thought about an event or a situation or state of being. (see [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md))
* Sentences can be statements, questions, commands, or exclamations. (see [Exclamations](../figs-sentencetypes/01.md))
* Sentences can be statements, questions, commands, or exclamations. (see [Exclamations](../figs-exclamations/01.md))
* Sentences can have more than one clause. (see [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md))
* Some languages have both active and passive sentences. (see [Active or Passive](../figs-activepassive/01.md))
@ -16,5 +16,5 @@ Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put w
* Quotations normally have two parts: Information about who said something and what the person said. (see [Quotations and Quote Margins](../writing-quotations/01.md))
* Quotations can be either direct quotes or indirect quotes. (see [Direct and Indirect Quotations](../figs-quotations/01.md))
* Quotes can have quotes within them. (see [Quotes within Quotes](../figs-quotesinquotes/01.md))
* Quotes can be marked to make it easy for readers to understand who said what. (see [Quote Markings](../figs-quotemarks/01.md))

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When a speaker expresses a single idea by using two words that are connected with "and," it is called "hendiadys." In hendiadys, the two words work together. Usually one of the words is the primary idea and the other word further describes the primary one.
>... his own <u>kingdom and glory.</u> (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
Though "kingdom" and "glory" are both nouns, "glory" actually tells what kind of kingdom it is: it is a **kingdom of glory** or **a glorious kingdom**.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Often hendiadys contains an abstract noun. Some languages may not have a noun with the same meaning.
* Many languages do not use hendiadys, so people may not understand how the two words work together; one word describing the other.
### Examples from the Bible
>... for I will give you <u>words and wisdom ...</u> (Luke 21:15 ULT)
In the two examples below, the second noun describes the first noun.
"Words" and "wisdom" are nouns, but in this figure of speech "wisdom" describes "words."
>... who calls you into his own <u>kingdom and glory.</u> (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)
>... if you are willing and obedient ... (Isaiah 1:19 ULT)
* The noun "glory" describes "kingdom." It is his <u>glorious kingdom</u>.
"Willing" and "obedient" are adjectives, but "willing" describes "obedient."
>... for I will give you <u>words and wisdom</u> ... (Luke 21:15 ULB)
* The noun "wisdom" describes "words." They are <u>wise words</u>.
In the example below, the first adjective describes the second adjective.
>If you are <u>willing and obedient</u> ... (Isaiah 1:19 ULB)
* The adjective "willing" describes how people should be obedient. They should be <u>willingly obedient</u>. (They should obey willingly.)
### Translation Strategies
@ -35,28 +39,22 @@ If the hendiadys would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, c
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Substitute the describing noun with an adjective that means the same thing.
* **for I will give you <u>words and wisdom</u>** (Luke 21:15 ULT)
* for I will give you <u>wise words</u>
* **that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to <u>his own kingdom and glory</u>.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
* that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to <u>his own glorious kingdom</u>.
* **... for I will give you <u>words and wisdom</u> ...** (Luke 21:15 ULB)
* ... for I will give you <u>wise words</u> ...
* **... who calls you to <u>his own kingdom and glory</u>.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)
* ... who calls you to <u>his own glorious kingdom</u>.
1. Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.
* **for I will give you <u>words and wisdom</u>.** (Luke 21:15 ULT)
* for I will give you <u>words of wisdom</u>.
* **that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to <u>his own kingdom and glory</u>.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULT)
* that you should walk in a manner that is worthy of God, who calls you to <u>his own kingdom of glory</u>.
* **... for I will give you <u>words and wisdom</u> ...** (Luke 21:15 ULB)
* ... for I will give you <u>words of wisdom</u> ...
* **... who calls you into <u>his own kingdom and glory</u>.** (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)
* ... who calls you to <u>his own kingdom of glory</u>.
1. Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.
* **if you are <u>willing</u> and <u>obedient</u>** (Isaiah 1:19 ULT)
* if you are <u>willingly obedient</u>
* **If you are <u>willing</u> and <u>obedient</u> ...** (Isaiah 1:19 ULB)
* If you are <u>willingly obedient</u> ...
1. Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word describes the other.
* **if you are, <u>willing and obedient</u>** (Isaiah 1:19 ULT) - The adjective "obedient" can be substituted with the verb "obey."
* if you <u>obey willingly</u>
* **If you are, <u>willing and obedient</u>** (Isaiah 1:19 ULB) - The adjective "obedient" can be substituted with the verb "obey."
* If you <u>obey willingly</u>

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**Hyperbole**: This is a figure of speech that uses **exaggeration**. A speaker deliberately describes something by an extreme or even unreal statement, usually to show his strong feeling or opinion about it. He expects people to understand that he is exaggerating.
>They will not leave <u>one stone upon another</u> (Luke 19:44 ULT)
**Generalization:** This is a statement that is true most of the time or in most situations that it could apply to. Sometimes when people use strong-sounding words like "all," "always," "none," or "never," they mean exactly "all," "always," "none," or "never." But when people use these words in a generalization, they simply mean "most, "most of the time," "hardly any" or "rarely."
* This is an exaggeration. It means that the enemies will completely destroy Jerusalem.
**Generalization:** This is a statement that is true most of the time or in most situations that it could apply to.
>The one who ignores instruction <u>will have poverty and shame,</u>
>but <u>honor will come</u> to him who learns from correction. (Proverbs 13:18)
* These generalizations tell about what normally happens to people who ignore instruction and what normally happens to people who learn from correction.
>And when you pray, do not make useless repetitions as <u>the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.</u> (Matthew 6:7)
* This generalization tells about what Gentiles were known for doing. Many Gentiles may have done this.
Even though a generalization may have a strong-sounding word like "all," "always," "none," or "never," it does not necessarliy mean **exactly** "all," "always," "none," or "never." It simply means "most, "most of the time," "hardly any" or "rarely."
>Moses was educated in <u>all the learning of the Egyptians</u> (Acts 7:22 ULT)
* This generalization means that he had learned much of what the Egyptians knew and taught.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
1. Readers need to be able to understand whether or not a statement is completely true.
1. If readers realize that a statement is not completely true, they need to be able to understand whether it is a hyperbole, a generalization, or a lie. (Though the Bible is completely true, it tells about people who did not always tell the truth.)
### Examples from the Bible
#### Examples of Exaggeration
>If your hand causes you to stumble, <u>cut it off</u>. It is better for you to enter into life maimed… (Mark 9:43 ULT)
Jesus used a hyperbole to show how extremely important it is to stop sinning. He did not mean that people should actually cut off their hand, but that we should <u>do whatever extreme things</u> we need to do in order not to sin.
When Jesus said to cut off your hand, he meant that we should <u>do whatever extreme things</u> we need to do in order not to sin. He used this hyperbole to show how extremely important it is to try to stop sinning.
>If your hand causes you to stumble, <u>cut it off</u>. It is better for you to enter into life maimed ... (Mark 9:43 ULB)
>The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops <u>as numerous as the sand on the seashore</u>. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULT)
The author of 1 Samuel used hyperbole to show that there were <u>many, many</u> soldiers in the Philistine army. It showed the great danger that the Israelites were in.
The underlined phrase is an exaggeration. It means that there were <u>many, many</u> soldiers in the Philistine army.
>The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel, with thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops <u>as numerous as the sand on the seashore</u>. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULB)
When Jesus spoke about how Israel's enemies would destroy Jerusalem, he used hyperbole to show that Jerusalem would be terribly destroyed.
>They will not leave <u>one stone upon another</u> ... (Luke 19:44 ULB)
#### Examples of Generalization
>They found him, and they said to him, "<u>Everyone</u> is looking for you." (Mark 1:37 ULT)
Stephen used the word "all" in a generalization about Moses' education. It means that Moses learned much of what the Egyptians knew and taught, not every single thing.
The disciples told Jesus that everyone was looking looking for him. They probably did not mean that everyone in the city was looking for him, but that <u>many people</u> were looking for him, or that all of Jesus' closest friends there were looking for him.
> Moses was educated in <u>all the wisdom of the Egyptians</u> ... (Acts 7:22 ULB)
>But as his anointing teaches you about <u>all things</u> and is true and is not a lie, and even as it has taught you, remain in him. (1 John 2:27 ULT)
Jesus' disciples used the word "everyone" in a generalization about who was looking for him. They did not mean that every person in the city was looking for him, but that <u>many people</u> were looking for him, or that all of Jesus' closest friends there were looking for him.
This is a generalization. God's Spirit teaches us about <u>all things that we need to know</u>, not about everything that is possible to know.
>They found him, and they said to him, "<u>Everyone</u> is looking for you." (Mark 1:37 ULB)
John used the word "everything" in a generalization about what God teaches his people. God teaches us about <u>all things that we need to know</u>, not about absolutely everything.
>But as his anointing teaches you <u>everything</u> and is true and is not a lie ... (1 John 2:27 ULB)
#### Caution
Do not assume that something is an exaggeration just because it seems to be impossible. God does miraculous things.
>… they saw Jesus <u>walking on the sea</u> and coming near the boat … (John 6:19 ULT)
Do not assume that something is an exaggeration just because it seems to be impossible. God does miraculous things. Jesus really walked on the water.
This is not hyperbole. Jesus really walked on the water. It is a literal statement.
>... they saw Jesus <u>walking on the sea</u> ... (John 6:19 ULB)
Do not assume that the word "all" is always a generalization that means "most."
Do not assume that the word "all" is always a generalization that means "most." Yahweh is always righteous.
>Yahweh is righteous in all his ways
>and gracious in all he does. (Psalms 145:17 ULT)
>Yahweh is righteous in <u>all his ways</u> ... (Psalm 145:17 ULB)
Yahweh is always righteous. This is a completely true statement.
### Translation Strategies
@ -84,29 +69,23 @@ If the exaggeration or generalization would be natural and people would understa
1. For a generalization, add a word like "most" or "almost" to show that the generalization is not exact.
1. For a generalization that has a word like "all," always," "none," or "never," consider deleting that word.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Express the meaning without the exaggeration.
* **The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops <u>as numerous as the sand on the seashore</u>.** (1 Samuel 13:5 ULT)
* The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel: thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and <u>a great number of troops</u>.
* **... thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops <u>as numerous as the sand on the seashore</u>.** (1 Samuel 13:5 ULB)
* ... thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and <u>a great number of troops</u>.
1. For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like "in general" or "in most cases."
* **The one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame ...** (Proverbs 13:18 ULT)
* <u>In general,</u> the one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame
* **And when you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.** (Matthew 6:7)
* "And when you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles <u>generally</u> do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words."
* **The one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame ...** (Proverbs 13:18 ULB)
* <u>In general,</u> the one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame ...
* **When you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.** (Matthew 6:7)
* When you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles <u>generally</u> do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.
1. For a generalization, add a word like "most" or "almost" to show that the generalization is not exact. 
* **The <u>whole</u> country of Judea and <u>all</u> the people of Jerusalem went out to him.** (Mark 1:5 ULT)
* **The <u>whole</u> country of Judea and <u>all</u> the people of Jerusalem went out to him.** (Mark 1:5 ULB)
* <u>Almost all</u> the country of Judea and <u>almost all</u> the people of Jerusalem went out to him."
* <u>Most</u> of the country of Judea and <u>most</u> of the people of Jerusalem went out to him."
1. For a generalization that has a word like "all," always," "none," or "never," consider deleting that word.
* **The <u>whole</u> country of Judea and <u>all</u> the people of Jerusalem went out to him.** (Mark 1:5 ULT)
* **The <u>whole</u> country of Judea and <u>all</u> the people of Jerusalem went out to him.** (Mark 1:5 ULB)
* The country of Judea and the people of Jerusalem went out to him.

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"If the sun stopped shining…", "What if the sun stopped shining…", "Suppose the sun stopped shining…", "If only the sun had not stopped shining." We use such expressions to set up hypothetical situations, imagining what might have happened or what could happen in the future but probably will not. We also use them to express regret or wishes. These occur often in the Bible. We need to translate them in a way that people will know that the event did not actually happen, and that they will understand why the event was imagined.
### Description
Hypothetical situations are situations that are not real. They can be in the past, present, or future. Hypothetical situations in the past and present have not happened, and ones in the future are not expected to happen.
A condition that is contrary to fact is false. It is not met. or contrary to fact. People sometimes talk about conditions and what would happen as a result of those conditions being met, but they know that these conditions are not met, so the results also do not happen. (The conditions are the phrase that start with "if.")
People sometimes tell about conditions and what would happen if those conditions were met, but they know that these things have not happened or probably will not happen. (The conditions are the phrase that start with "if.")
In the sentences below, the first clause with "if" is a condition that is contrary to fact. The second clause tells what the result would be if the condition were met. But since the condition is not met, the expected result does not happen.
* If he had known about the party, he would have come to it. (But he did not come.)
* If he knew about the party, he would be here. (But he is not here.)
* If he knew about the party, he would come to it. (But he probably will not come.)
People sometimes express wishes about things that have not happened or that are not expected to happen.
* I wish he had come.
* I wish he were here.
* I wish he would come.
People sometimes express regrets about things that have not happened or that are not expected to happen.
Conditions that are contrary to fact can also be used to express regret about things that are not as desired.
* If only he had come.
* If only he were here.
* If only he would come.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Translators need to recognize the different kinds of hypothetical situations in the Bible.
* Translators need to know their own language's ways of talking about different kinds of hypothetical situations.
* Translators need to recognize conditions that are contrary to fact in the Bible.
* Translators need to know their own language's ways of expressing conditions that are contrary to fact.
### Examples from the Bible
1. Hypothetical situations in the past
##### Conditions that are contrary to fact with their results
> "Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes." (Matthew 11:21 ULT)
>"Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! <u>If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes.</u>" (Matthew 11:21 ULB)
Here in Matthew 11:21 Jesus said that if the people living in the ancient cities of Tyre and Sidon had been able to see the miracles that he performed, they would have repented long ago. The people of Tyre and Sidon did not actually see his miracles and repent. He said this to rebuke the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida who had seen his miracles yet did not repent.
Here in Matthew 11:21 Jesus said that <u>if</u> the people living in the ancient cities of Tyre and Sidon had been able to see the miracles that he performed, they would have repented long ago. The people of Tyre and Sidon did not actually see his miracles and repent. He said this to rebuke the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida who had seen his miracles yet did not repent.
>Martha then said to Jesus, "Lord, <u>if you had been here, my brother would not have died.</u>" (John 11:21 ULB)
> Martha then said to Jesus, "Lord, if you had been here, my brother would not have died." (John 11:21 ULT)
Martha said this to express her wish that Jesus had come sooner. But Jesus had not come sooner, and her brother died.
>...if I did not honor the presence of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, I would not pay any attention to you, or even look at you. (2 Kings 3:14 ULB)
Martha said this to express her wish that Jesus had come sooner. But Jesus did not come sooner, and her brother did die.
Elisha said this to tell the king of Israel that he did not respect him. It was only because Elisha honored the king of Judah that he would pay attention to the king of Israel.
1. Hypothetical situations in the present
><u>Unless those days are shortened, no flesh would be saved;</u> but for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened. (Matthew 24:22 ULB)
> Also, no man puts new wine into old wineskins. If he did that, the new wine would burst the skins, and the wine would be spilled, and the wineskins would be destroyed. (Luke 5:37 ULT)
Jesus was talking about a future time when very bad things would happen. He told what would happen if those days of trouble were to last a long time. He did this to show how bad those days will be - so bad that if they lasted a long time, no one would be saved. But then he clarified that God will shorten those days of trouble, so that the elect (those he has chosen) will be saved.
##### Conditions that are contrary to fact used to express regret
Jesus told about what would happen if a person were to put new wine into old wineskins. But no one would do that. He used this imaginary situation as an example to show that there are times when it is unwise to mix new things with old things. He did this so that people could understand why his disciples were not fasting as people traditionally did.
>Jesus said to them, "What man would there be among you, who, <u>if</u> he had just one sheep, and if this sheep fell into a deep hole on the Sabbath, would not grasp hold of it and lift it out? (Matthew 12:11 ULT)
Jesus asked the religious leaders what they would do on the Sabbath if one of their sheep fell into a hole. He was not saying that their sheep would fall into a hole. He used this imaginary situation to show them that they were wrong to judge him for healing people on the Sabbath.
1. Hypothetical situation in the future
> <u>Unless those days are shortened, no flesh would be saved</u>; but for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened. (Matthew 24:22 ULT)
Jesus was talking about a future time when very bad things would happen. He told what would happen if those days of trouble were to last a long time. He did this to show about how bad those days will be - so bad that if they lasted a long time, no one would be saved. But then he clarified that God will shorten those days of trouble, so that the elect (those he has chosen) will be saved.
1. Expressing emotion about a hypothetical situation
Regrets and wishes are very similar.
>The Israelites said to them, "<u>If only we had died by Yahweh's hand in the land of Egypt when we were sitting by the pots of meat and were eating bread to the full.</u> For you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill our whole community with hunger." (Exodus 16:3 ULT)
>The Israelites said to them, "<u>If only we had died by Yahweh's hand in the land of Egypt when we were sitting by the pots of meat and were eating bread to the full.</u> For you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill our whole community with hunger." (Exodus 16:3 ULB)
Here the Israelites were afraid they would have to suffer and die of hunger in the wilderness, and so they wished that they had stayed in Egypt and died there with full stomachs. They were complaining, expressing regret that this had not happened.
> I know what you have done, and that you are neither cold nor hot. <u>I wish that you were either cold or hot!</u> (Revelation 3:15 ULT)
><u>Oh, if only I had wings like a dove!</u> Then would I fly away and be at rest. (Psalm 55:6 ULB)
David was afraid of his enemies and wished that had wings and could fly. But he could not.
Jesus wished that the people were either hot or cold, but they are neither. He was rebuking them, expressing anger at this.
### Translation Strategies
### Translation Principles
Know how people speaking your language show:
* that something could have happened, but did not.
* that something could be true now, but is not.
* that something could happen in the future, but will not unless something changes.
* that they wish for something, but it does not happen.
* that they wish for something that they know will not happen.
* that they regret that something did not happen.
Use your language's ways of showing these kinds of things.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_hypo.

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What is a hypothetical situation?
What are conditions that are contrary to fact?

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Hypothetical Situations
Conditions That Are Contrary to Fact

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An idiom is a figure of speech made up of a group of words that, as a whole, has a meaning that is different from what one would understand from the meanings of the individual words. Someone from outside of the culture usually cannot understand an idiom without someone inside the culture explaining its true meaning. Every language uses idioms. Some English examples are:
* You are pulling my leg (This means, "You are telling me a lie")
* Do not push the envelope (This means, "Do not take a matter to its extreme")
* This house is under water (This means, "The debt owed for this house is greater than its actual value")
* We are painting the town red (This means, "We are going around town tonight celebrating very intensely")
### Description
An idiom is a phrase that has a special meaning to the people of the language or culture who use it. Its meaning is different than what a person would understand from the meanings of the individual words that form the phrase.
An idiom is a figure of speech made up of a group of words that, as a whole, has a meaning that is different from what one would understand from the meanings of the individual words. It has a special meaning to the people of the language or culture who use it; someone from outside of the culture usually cannot understand an idiom without someone inside the culture explaining its true meaning. Every language uses idioms.
>he resolutely <u>set his face</u> to go to Jerusalem. (Luke 9:51 ULT)
The words "set his face" is an idiom that means "decided."
Sometimes people may be able to understand an idiom from another culture, but it might sound like a strange way to express the meaning.
>I am not worthy that you should <u>enter under my roof</u>. (Luke 7:6 ULT)
The phrase "enter under my roof" is an idiom that means "enter my house."
>Let these words <u>go deeply into your ears</u>. (Luke 9:44 ULT)
This idiom means "Listen carefully and remember what I say."
**Purpose**: An idiom is created in a culture probably somewhat by accident when someone describes something in an unusual way. But, when that unusual way communicates the message powerfully and people understand it clearly, other people start to use it. After a while, it becomes a normal way of talking in that language.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People can easily misunderstand idioms in the original languages of the Bible if they do not know the cultures that produced the Bible.
* People can easily misunderstand idioms that are in the source language Bibles if they do not know the cultures that made those translations.
* It is useless to translate idioms literally (according to the meaning of each word) when the target language audience will not understand what they mean.
* Sometimes people may be able to understand an idiom from another culture, but it might sound like a strange way to express the meaning.
### Examples from the Bible
>Then all Israel came to David at Hebron and said, "Look, we are your <u>flesh and bone</u>." (1 Chronicles 11:1 ULT)
> But when the young son <u>came to himself</u> ... (Luke 15:17)
This means, "We and you belong to the same race, the same family."
* The idiom "came to himself" means that he began to think sensibly. He understood his situation.
>the children of Israel went out <u>with a high hand</u>. (Exodus 14:8 ASV)
> ... he ... <u>threw himself</u> into the sea. (John 21:7)
This means, "The Israelites went out defiantly."
* The idiom "threw himself" means that he quickly dived or jumped down into the water.
>the one who <u>lifts up my head</u> (Psalm 3:3 ULT)
> robbers, who ... beat him, and left him <u>half dead</u>. (Luke 10:30)
* The idiom "half dead" means that he was injured so badly that it appeared that he might die soon.
>Let these words <u>go deeply into your ears</u> ... (Luke 9:44 ULB)
* This idiom means "Listen carefully and remember what I say."
>My <u>eyes grow dim</u> from grief ... (Psalm 6:7 ULB)
* This idiom means that he cried bitterly for a long time.
This means, "the one who helps me."
### Translation Strategies
@ -56,21 +43,14 @@ If the idiom would be clearly understood in your language, consider using it. If
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.
* **Then all Israel came to David at Hebron and said, "Look, we are your <u>flesh and bone</u>."** ( 1 Chronicles 11:1 ULT)
* ...Look, we all <u>belong to the same nation</u>.
* **he <u>resolutely set his face</u> to go to Jerusalem.** (Luke 9:51 ULT)
* He started to travel to Jerusalem, <u>determined to reach it</u>.
* **I am not worthy that you should enter <u>under my roof</u>.** (Luke 7:6 ULT)
* I am not worthy that you should enter <u>my house</u>.
* **But when the young son <u>came to himself</u> ...** (Luke 15:17 ULB)
* But when the young man began to think clearly
* **... he ... <u>threw himself</u> into the sea.** (John 21:7 ULB)
* ... he <u>dived</u> into the sea.
1. Use an idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.
* **Let these words <u>go deeply into your ears</u>** (Luke 9:44 ULT)
* <u>Be all ears</u> when I say these words to you.
* **"My <u>eyes grow dim</u> from grief** (Psalm 6:7 ULT)
* I am crying my <u>eyes out</u>
* **Let these words <u>go deeply into your ears</u> ...** (Luke 9:44 ULB)
* <u>Be all ears</u> when I say these words to you ...
* **My <u>eyes grow dim</u> from grief ...** (Psalm 6:7 ULB)
* I cry my <u>eyes out ...</u>

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Imperative sentences are mainly used to express a desire or requirement that someone do something. Sometimes imperative sentences in the Bible have other uses.
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Some languages would not use an imperative sentence for some of the functions that they are used for in the Bible.
### Examples from the Bible
Speakers often use imperative sentences to tell or ask their listeners to do something. In Genesis 2, God spoke to Isaac and told him not to go to Egypt but to live where God would tell him to live.
####Imperatives are normally used to tell someone to do something.
> Now Yahweh appeared to him and said, "<u>Do not go down</u> to Egypt; <u>live</u> in the land that I tell you to live in. (Genesis 26:2 ULT)
><u>Do not go down</u> to Egypt; <u>live</u> in the land that I tell you to live in. (Genesis 26:2 ULB)
Sometimes imperative sentences in the Bible have other uses.
In Genesis 2, God told Isaac not to go to Egypt but to live where God would tell him to live.
#### Imperatives that make things happen
#### Imperatives can be used to make things happen.
God can make things happen by commanding that they happen. Jesus healed a man by commanding that the man be healed. The man could not do anything to obey the command, but Jesus caused him to be healed by commanding it. ("Be clean" means "Be healed.")
> "I am willing. <u>Be clean</u>." Immediately he was cleansed of his leprosy. (Matthew 8:3 ULT)
God can make things happen by commanding that they happen.
In Genesis 1, God commanded that there should be light, and by commanding it, he caused it to exist. Some languages, such as the Hebrew of the Bible, have commands that are in the third person. English does not do that, and so it must turn the third-person command into a general second-person command, as in the ULT:
>God said, "<u>Let there be</u> light," and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
>God said, "<u>Let there be</u> light," and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULB)
Languages that have third-person commands can follow the original Hebrew, which translates into English as something like, "light must be."
In Genesis 1, God commanded that there should be light, and by commanding it, he caused it to exist.
#### Imperatives that function as blessings
>Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, "I am willing. <u>Be clean</u>." Immediately he was cleansed of his leprosy. (Matthew 8:3 ULB)
In the Bible, God blesses people by using imperatives. This indicates what his will is for them.
Jesus healed a man by commanding that the man be healed. The man could not do anything to obey the command, but Jesus caused him to be healed by commanding it. ("Be clean" means "Be healed.")
>God blessed them and said to them, "<u>Be fruitful</u>, and <u>multiply</u>. <u>Fill</u> the earth, and <u>subdue</u> it. <u>Have dominion</u> over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."
#### Imperatives can be used as blessings.
#### Imperatives that function as conditions
>God blessed them and said to them, "<u>Be fruitful</u>, and <u>multiply</u>. <u>Fill</u> the earth, and <u>subdue</u> it. <u>Have dominion</u> over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth." (Genesis 1:28 ULB)
An imperative sentence can also be used to tell the **condition** under which something will happen. The proverbs mainly tell about life and things that often happen. The purpose of Proverbs 4:6 below is not primarily to give a command, but to teach what people can expect to happen **if** they love wisdom.
In the Bible, God blesses people by using imperatives. This indicates what his will is for them and he causes his will to happen.
#### Imperatives can be used as conditions.
An imperative sentence can also be used to tell the **condition** under which something will happen. The proverbs mainly tell about life and things that often happen.
>... <u>do not abandon</u> wisdom and she will watch over you;
><u>love</u> her and she will keep you safe. (Proverbs 4:6 ULT)
><u>love</u> her and she will keep you safe. (Proverbs 4:6 ULB)
The purpose of Proverbs 22:6 below is teach what people can expect to happen if they teach their children the way they should go.
The purpose of Proverbs 4:6 is to teach what people can expect to happen **if** they love wisdom; it is not primarily to give a command.
><u>Teach</u> a child the way he should go,
>and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULT)
>and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULB)
The purpose of Proverbs 22:6 is teach what people can expect to happen **if** they teach their children the way they should go.
### Translation Strategies
1. If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
1. If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like "so" to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
1. If people would not use a command as a condition, translate it as a statement with the words "if" and "then."
1. If a command in the ULB functions as a condition, and people would not use a command that way, translate it as a condition with the words "if" and "then."
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
* **Be clean.** (Matthew 8:3 ULT)
* "You are now clean."
* "I now cleanse you."
* **God said, "<u>Let there be</u> light," and there was light.** (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
* **Be clean.** (Matthew 8:3 ULB)
* You are now clean.
* I now cleanse you.
* **God said, "<u>Let there be</u> light," and there was light.** (Genesis 1:3 ULB)
* God said, "<u>There is now light</u>" and there was light.
* **God blessed them and said to them, "<u>Be fruitful</u>, and <u>multiply</u>. <u>Fill</u> the earth, and <u>subdue</u> it. <u>Have dominion</u> over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."** (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
* **God blessed them and said to them, "<u>Be fruitful</u>, and <u>multiply</u>. <u>Fill</u> the earth, and <u>subdue</u> it. <u>Have dominion</u> over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."** (Genesis 1:3 ULB)
* God blessed them and said to them, "<u>My will for you is that you be fruitful</u>, and <u>multiply</u>. <u>Fill</u> the earth, and <u>subdue</u> it. <u>I want you to have dominion</u> over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."
1. If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like "so" to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
* **God said, "Let there be light," and there was light.** (Genesis 1:3 ULT)
* **God said, "Let there be light," and there was light.** (Genesis 1:28 ULB)
* God said, 'Let there be light,' <u>so</u> there was light.
* God said, "Light must be;" <u>as a result</u>, there was light.
1. If people would not use a command as a condition, translate it as a statement with the words "if" and "then."
1. If a command in the ULB functions as a condition, and people would not use a command that way, translate it as a condition with the words "if" and "then."
* **Teach a child the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.** (Proverbs 22:6 ULB)
* <u>If</u> you teach a child the way he should go, <u>then</u> when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.
>**Teach a child the way he should go,**
>**and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.** (Proverbs 22:6 ULT)
Translated as:
>"<u>If</u> you teach a child the way he should go,
><u>then</u> when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction."

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Figures of speech have special meanings that are not the same as the meanings of their individual words. There are different kinds of figures of speech. This page lists and defines some of those that are used in the Bible.
### Definition
### Description
Figures of speech are ways of saying things that use words in non-literal ways. That is, the meaning of a figure of speech is not the same as the more direct meaning of its words. In order to translate the meaning, you need to be able to recognize figures of speech and know what the figure of speech means in the source language. Then you can choose either a figure of speech or a direct way to communicate that same meaning in the target language.
### Translation principles
* Make the meaning of the figure of speech as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning more clear to the target audience than it was to the original audience.
* When someone uses an extended metaphor, the images are an important part of what he is trying to say.
* If the target audience is not familiar with some of the images, you will need to find some way of helping them understand the images so they can understand the whole extended metaphor.
### Types
Listed below are different types of Figures of Speech. If you would like additional information simply click the colored word to be directed to a page containing definitions, examples, and videos for each figure of speech.
Listed below are different types of Figures of Speech. If you would like additional information simply click the colored word to be directed to a page containing definitions, examples, and translation strategies for each figure of speech.
* **[Apostrophe](../figs-apostrophe/01.md)** - An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker directly addresses someone who is not there, or addresses a thing that is not a person.

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### Description
Irony is a figure of speech in which the sense that the speaker intends to communicate is actually the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. Sometimes a person does this by using someone else's words, but in a way that communicates that he does not agree with them. People do this to emphasize how different something is from what it should be, or how someone else's belief about something is wrong or foolish. It is often humorous.
Irony is a figure of speech in which the sense that the speaker intends to communicate is actually the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. Sometimes a person does this by using someone else's words, but in a way that communicates that he does not agree with them. People do this to emphasize how different something is from what it should be, or how someone else's belief about something is wrong or foolish. It often expresses anger.
>Jesus answered them, "People who are in good health do not need a physician, only people who are sick need one. I did not come to call righteous people to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance." (Luke 5:31-32 ULT)
When Jesus spoke of "righteous people," he was not referring to people who were truly righteous, but to people who wrongly believed that they were righteous. By using irony, Jesus communicated that they were wrong to think that they were better than others and did not need to repent.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* If someone does not realize that a speaker is using irony, he will think that the speaker actually believes what he is saying. He will understand the passage to mean the opposite of what it was intended to mean.
### Examples from the Bible
><u>How well you reject the commandment of God</u> so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULT)
><u>How well you reject the commandment of God</u> so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULB)
Here Jesus praises the Pharisees for doing something that is obviously wrong. Through irony, he communicates the opposite of praise: He communicates that the Pharisees, who take great pride in keeping the commandments, are so far from God that they do not even recognize that their traditions are breaking God's commandments. The use of irony makes the Pharisee's sin more obvious and startling.
* Here Jesus appears to praise the Pharisees for doing something that is obviously wrong. Through irony, he communicates the opposite of praise: He communicates that the Pharisees, who take great pride in keeping the commandments, are so far from God that they do not even recognize that their traditions are breaking God's commandments. The use of irony makes the Pharisee's sin more obvious and startling.
>"Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. <u>"Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen, so we may know these things well. Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled</u>." (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULT)
>Jesus answered them, "People who are well do not need a physician; only people who are sick need one. I did not come to call <u>righteous people</u>, but to call sinners to repentance." (Luke 5:31-32)
People worshiped idols as if their idols had knowledge or power, and Yahweh was angry at them for doing that. So he used irony and challenged their idols to tell what would happen in the future. He knew that the idols could not do this, but by speaking as if they could, he mocked the idols, making their inability more obvious, and rebuked the people for worshiping them.
* When Jesus spoke of "righteous people," he was not referring to people who were truly righteous, but to people who wrongly believed that they were righteous. By using irony, Jesus communicated that they were wrong to think that they were better than others and did not need to repent.
>Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work?
>Can you find the way back to their houses for them?
><u>Undoubtedly you know, for you were born then;</u>
>"<u>the number of your days is so large!</u>" (Job 38:20, 21 ULT)
>"Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. <u>"Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen, so we may know these things well. Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled</u>." (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULB)
Job thought that he was wise. Yahweh used irony to show Job that he was not so wise. The two underlined phrases above are irony. They emphasize the opposite of what they say, because they are so obviously false. They emphasize that Job could not possibly answer God's questions about the creation of light because Job was not born until many, many years later.
* People worshiped idols as if their idols had knowledge or power, and Yahweh was angry at them for doing that. So he used irony and challenged their idols to tell what would happen in the future. He knew that the idols could not do this, but by speaking as if they could, he mocked the idols, making their inability more obvious, and rebuked the people for worshiping them.
>Already you have all you could want! Already you have become rich! You began to reign—and that quite apart from us! (1 Corinthians 4:8 ULT)
><u>How honored the king of Israel was today</u>, who undressed himself today before the eyes of the slave girls among his servants, like one of the crude fellows who shamelessly undresses himself!"
The Corinthians considered themselves to be very wise, self-sufficient, and not in need of any instruction from the Apostle Paul. Paul used irony, speaking as if he agreed with them, to show how proudly they were acting and how far from being wise they really were.
* King David's wife said this when she was angry with him for wearing so little clothing when he danced before Yahweh out in the street. When she said "How honored the king of Israel was today," she really meant that he was dishonored and that she was angry about it.
### Translation Strategies
@ -38,31 +31,24 @@ If the irony would be understood correctly in your language, translate it as it
1. Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
1. Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony. The actual meaning of the irony is <u>not</u> found in the literal words of the speaker, but instead the true meaning is found in the opposite of the literal meaning of the speaker's words.
1. Translate it in a way that shows the speaker's anger about the situation.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
* **<u>How well you reject the commandment of God</u> so you may keep your tradition!** (Mark 7:9 ULT)
* <u>You think that you are doing well when you reject God's commandment</u> so you may keep your tradition!
* **<u>How well</u> you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!** (Mark 7:9 ULB)
* <u>You think that you are doing so well,</u> but you reject God's commandment in order to keep your tradition!
* <u>You act like it is good to reject God's commandment</u> so you may keep your tradition!
* **I did not come to call <u>righteous people</u> to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance.** (Luke 5:32 ULT)
* I did not come to call <u>people who think that they are righteous</u> to repentance, but to call sinners to repentance.
* **I did not come to call <u>righteous people</u>, but to call sinners to repentance.** (Luke 5:32)
* I did not come to call <u>people who think that they are righteous</u>, but to call sinners to repentance.
1. Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony.
* **<u>How well</u> you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!** (Mark 7:9 ULB)
* <u>You are doing a terrible thing</u> when you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!
* **"Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "<u>Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen</u>, so we may know these things well. <u>Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations</u>, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled."** (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULB)
* "Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "<u>Your idols cannot bring us their own arguments or come forward to declare to us what will happen</u> so we may know these things well. We cannot hear them because <u>they cannot speak</u> to tell us their earlier predictive declarations, so we cannot reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled."
* **<u>How well you reject the commandment of God</u> so you may keep your tradition!** (Mark 7:9 ULT)
* <u>You are doing a terrible thing when you reject the commandment of God</u> so you may keep your tradition!
* **"Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "<u>Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen</u>, so we may know these things well. <u>Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled</u>."** (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULT)
* 'Present your case,' says Yahweh; 'present your best arguments for your idols,' says the King of Jacob. Your idols <u>cannot bring us their own arguments or come forward to declare to us what will happen</u> so we may know these things well. We cannot hear them because <u>they cannot speak</u> to tell us their earlier predictive declarations, so we cannot reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled.
* **Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work?**
**Can you find the way back to their houses for them?**
**<u>Undoubtedly you know, for you were born then;</u>**
**<u>the number of your days is so large!</u>"** (Job 38:20, 21 ULT)
* Can you lead light and darkness to their places of work? Can you find the way back to their houses for them? <u>You act like you know how light and darkness were created, as if you were there; as if you are as old as creation, but you are not</u>!
1. Translate it in a way that shows the speaker's feelings about the situation.
* **<u>How well you reject</u> the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!** (Mark 7:9 ULB)
* <u>How dare you reject</u> the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!

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Litotes is a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses a strong positive meaning by using two negative words or a negative word with a word that means the opposite of the meaning he intends. A few examples of negative words are "no," "not," "none," and "never." The opposite of "good" is "bad." Someone could say that something is "not bad" to mean that it is extremely good.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Some languages do not use litotes. People who speak those languages might not understand that a statement using litotes actually strengthens the positive meaning. Instead, they might think that it weakens or even cancels the positive meaning.
### Examples from the Bible
>For you yourselves know, brothers, our coming to you was <u>not useless</u>, (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
Luke wrote about the night when Peter was in prison and an angel came and helped him escape, even though there were soldiers guarding him.
By using litotes, Paul emphasized that his visit with them was <u>very</u> useful.
>Now when it became day, there was <u>no small</u> disturbance among the soldiers, over what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULB)
>Now when it became day, there was <u>no small excitement</u> among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULT)
* By using litotes, Luke emphasized that soldiers were very anxious and agitated because Peter had escaped.
By using litotes, Luke emphasized that there was a <u>lot</u> of excitement or anxiety among the soldiers about what happened to Peter. (Peter had been in prison, and even though there were soldiers guarding him, he escaped when an angel let him out. So they were very agitated.)
>Be sure of this—the wicked person <u>will not go unpunished</u> ... (Proverbs 11:21 ULB)
>And you, Bethlehem, in the land of Judah,
>are <u>not the least</u> among the leaders of Judah,
>for from you will come a ruler
>who will shepherd my people Israel. (Matthew 2:6 ULT)
* By using litotes, the writer emphasized that wicked people will be punished.
By using litotes, the prophet emphasized that Bethlehem would be a <u>very important city</u>.
><u>Not one word has failed</u> out of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant. (1 Kings 8:56)
* By using litotes, the writer emphasized that Yahweh did everything that he had promised Moses.
### Translation Strategies
If the litotes would be understood correctly, consider using it.
If the litotes would be understood correctly in your langauge, consider using it. If not, consider this strategy.
1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the <u>positive</u> meaning in a strong way.
1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the positive meaning in a strong way.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the <u>positive</u> meaning in a strong way.
* **For you yourselves know, brothers, our coming to you was <u>not useless</u>.** (1 Thessalonians 2:1 ULT)
* "For you yourselves know, brothers, our visit to you <u>did much good</u>."
* **Now when it became day, there was <u>no small excitement</u> among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter.** (Acts 12:18 ULT)
* "Now when it became day, there was <u>great excitement</u> among the soldiers, regarding what had happened to Peter."
* "Now when it became day, the soldiers were <u>very concerned</u> because of what had happened to Peter."
1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the positive meaning in a strong way.
* **Now when it became day, there was <u>no small</u> disturbance among the soldiers over what had happened to Peter.** (Acts 12:18 ULB)
* Now when it became day, there was <u>a great</u> disturbance among the soldiers over what had happened to Peter.
* **Be sure of this—wicked people <u>will not go unpunished</u> ...** (Proverbs 11:21 ULB)
* Be sure of this—wicked people <u>will certainly be punished</u> ...
* **<u>Not one word has failed</u> out of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant.** (2 Kings 8:56)
* <u>Every word</u> of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant <u>has been fulfilled.</u>

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### Definition
### Description
Merism is a figure of speech in which a person refers to something by speaking of two extreme parts of it. By referring to the extreme parts, the speaker intends to include also everything in between those parts.
> "I am the Alpha and the Omega," says the Lord God, "the one who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty." (Revelation 1:8, ULT)
Merism is a figure of speech in which a person refers to something by speaking of two extreme parts of it. By referring to the extreme parts, the speaker intends to include those who parts and everything in between them.
> I am the <u>Alpha and the Omega</u>, <u>the First and the Last</u>, <u>the Beginning and the End</u>. (Revelation 22:13, ULT)
<u>Alpha and Omega</u> are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. This is a merism that includes everything from the beginning to the end. It means eternal.
>I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth ...</u>, (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
<u>Heaven and earth</u> is a merism that includes everything that exists.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Some languages do not use merism. The readers of those languages may think that the phrase only applies to the items mentioned. They may not realize that it refers to those two things and everything in between.
### Examples from the Bible
><u>From the rising of the sun to its setting</u>, Yahweh's name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULT)
This underlined phrase is a merism because it speaks of the east and the west and everywhere in between. It means "everywhere."
>He will bless those who honor him, both <u>young and old</u>. (Psalm 115:13)
The underlined phrase is merism because it speaks of, old people and young people and everyone in between. It means "everyone."
The underlined phrase is merism because it speaks of old people and young people and everyone in between. It means "everyone."
>I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth ...</u>, (Matthew 11:25 ULB)
The underlined phrase is a merism that includes everything that exists.
><u>From the rising of the sun to its setting</u>, Yahweh's name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULB)
This underlined phrase is a merism because it speaks of the east and the west and everywhere in between. It means "everywhere."
### Translation Strategies
If the merism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
1. Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
* **I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth</u> ...** (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
* I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>everything</u> ...
* **<u>From the rising of the sun to its setting</u>, Yahweh's name should be praised.** (Psalm 113:3 ULT)
* <u>In all places</u>, people should praise Yahweh's name.
1. Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
* **I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth</u>.** (Matthew 11:25 ULT)
* **I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth</u>.** (Matthew 11:25 ULB)
* I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>everything, including both what is in heaven and what is on earth</u>.
* **He will bless those who honor him, both <u>young and old</u>.** (Psalm 115:13 ULT)
* **He will bless those who honor him, both <u>young and old</u>.** (Psalm 115:13 ULB)
* He will bless <u>all those</u> who honor him, regardless of whether they are <u>young or old</u>.
1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.
* **I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>heaven and earth</u> ...** (Matthew 11:25 ULB)
* I praise you, Father, Lord of <u>everything</u> ...
* **<u>From the rising of the sun to its setting</u>, Yahweh's name should be praised.** (Psalm 113:3 ULB)
* <u>In all places</u>, people should praise Yahweh's name.

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### Description
A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one concept is used for another, and in which there is at least one point of comparison between the two. In other words, in metaphor, someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because he wants people to think about how those two things are alike. For example, someone might say,
* The girl I love is a red rose.
A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one concept (an "image") stands for another (the "topic"), and in which there is at least one point of comparison between the two. In other words, in metaphor, someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because there is an important way that those two things are alike.
In this case, the speaker wants the hearer to think about what is similar between his topic, "the girl I love," and the image he is using to compare her, "a red rose." Most probably, he wants us to consider that they are both beautiful.
Sometimes speakers use metaphors that are very common in their language. However, sometimes speakers use metaphors that are uncommon, and even some metaphors that are unique.
Speakers most often use metaphors in order to strengthen their message, to make their language more vivid, to express their feelings better, to say something that is hard to say in any other way, or to help people remember their message.
### Kinds of Metaphors
#### Kinds of Metaphors
There are two basic kinds of metaphors: "dead" metaphors and "live" metaphors. They each present a different kind of translation problem.
#### Dead Metaphors
##### Dead Metaphors
A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that its speakers no longer regard it as one concept standing for another. Dead metaphors are extremely common. Examples in English are "table leg," "family tree," "leaf" meaning a page in a book, and "crane" meaning a large machine for lifting heavy loads. English speakers simply think of these words as having more than one meaning. Examples in Biblical Hebrew are "hand" to mean "power," "face" to mean "presence," and speaking of emotions or moral qualities as if they were "clothing."
**Patterned Pairs of Concepts acting as Metaphors**
To learn how to deal with dead metaphors, see [Dead Metaphor](../figs-metaphordead/01.md)
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction UP often stands for the concept of MORE or BETTER. Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as "The price of gasoline is going *up*," "A *highly* intelligent man," and also the opposite kind of idea: "The temperature is going *down*," and "I am feeling very *low*."
##### Live Metaphors
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world's languages, because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities, such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities, as if they were objects that could be seen or held, as if they were body parts, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. They make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors.
When these metaphors are used in normal ways, it is rare that the speaker and audience regard them as figurative speech. Examples of metaphors in English that go unrecognized are:
* "Turn the heat *up*." MORE is spoken of as UP.
* "Let us *go ahead* with our debate." DOING WHAT WAS PLANNED is spoken of as WALKING or ADVANCING.
* "You *defend* your theory well." ARGUMENT is spoken of as WAR.
* "A *flow* of words" WORDS are spoken of as LIQUIDS.
English speakers do not view these as unusual or metaphorical expressions, so it would be wrong to translate them into other languages in a way that would lead people to pay special attention to them as figurative speech.
Live metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, we need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning. See [Metaphor Parts and Purposes](../figs-metaphorparts/01.md)
For a description of important patterns of this kind of metaphor in biblical languages, please see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md)and the pages it will direct you to.
The rest of this topic deals with live metaphors.
When translating something that is a dead metaphor into another language, do not treat it as a metaphor. Instead, just use the best expression for that thing or concept in the target language.
#### Live Metaphors
These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. They make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors. For example,
> For you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing in its wings. (Malachi 4:2 ULT)
Here God speaks about his salvation as if it were the sun rising in order to shine its rays on the people whom he loves. He also speaks of the sun's rays as if they were wings. Also, he speaks of these wings as if they were bringing medicine that would heal his people. Here is another example:
> "Jesus said, 'Go and tell that fox...,'" (Luke 13:32 ULT)
Here, "that fox" refers to King Herod. The people listening to Jesus certainly understood that Jesus was intending for them to apply certain characteristics of a fox to Herod. They probably understood that Jesus intended to communicate that Herod was evil, either in a cunning way or as someone who was destructive, murderous, or who took things that did not belong to him, or all of these.
Live metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, we need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning.
#### Parts of a Metaphor
A metaphor has three parts.
1. **Topic** - The thing someone speaks of is called the topic.
1. **Image** - The thing he calls it is the image.
1. **Point of Comparison** - The way or ways in which the author claims that the topic and image are similar are their points of comparison.
In the metaphor below, the speaker describes the woman he loves as a red rose. The woman (his "love") is the **topic**, and "red rose" is the **image**. Beauty and delicacy are the **points of comparison** that the speaker sees as similarities between both the topic and the image.
* My love is a red, red rose.
Often, as in the metaphor above, the speaker explicitly states the **topic** and the **image**, but he does not state the **points of comparison**. The speaker leaves it to the hearer to think of those points of comparison. Because the hearers must think of these ideas themselves, the speaker's message has a more powerful effect on the hearers.
Also in the Bible, normally the **topic** and the **image** are stated clearly, but not the **points of comparison**. The writer leaves it to the audience to think of and understand the points of comparison that are implied.
> Jesus said to them, "I am the bread of life; he who comes to me will not be hungry, and he who believes in me will never be thirsty." (John 6:35 ULT)
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **topic** is "I," and the **image** is "bread." Bread is a food that people ate all the time. The **point of comparison** between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have spiritual life.
**Purposes of Metaphor**
* One purpose of metaphor is to teach people about something that they do not know (the **topic**) by showing that it is like something that they already do know (the **image**).
* Another purpose is to emphasize that something has a particular quality or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
* Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the **topic** as they would feel about the **image**.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus misunderstand it.
* People may not be familiar with the thing that is used as an image, and so not be able to understand the metaphor.
@ -85,36 +31,31 @@ In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **topic** is "I,"
* People may not know the points of comparison that the speaker wants them to understand. If they fail to think of these points of comparison, they will not understand the metaphor.
* People may think that they understand the metaphor, but they do not. This can happen when they apply points of comparison from their own culture, rather than from the biblical culture.
#### Translation Principles
### Translation principles
* Make the meaning of a metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning of a metaphor more clear to the target audience than you think it was to the original audience.
### Examples from the Bible
>Listen to this word, <u>you cows of Bashan</u>, (Amos 4:1 ULT)
>Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; <u>we are the clay</u>. <u>You are our potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULB)
In this metaphor Amos speaks to the upper-class women of Samaria (the topic is "you") as if they were cows (the image). Amos does not say what points of comparison he intends between these women and cows. He wants the reader to think of them, and fully expects that readers from his culture will easily do so. From the context, we can see that he means that the women are like cows in that they are fat and interested only in feeding themselves. If we were to apply points of comparison from a different culture, such as that cows are sacred and should be worshipped, we would get the wrong meaning from this verse.
The example above has two related metaphors. The topics are "we" and "you," and the images are "clay and "potter." The intended point of comparison between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material: the potter makes what he wishes out of clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The point of comparison between the potter's clay and us is that neither the clay nor God's people have a right to complain about what they are becoming.
Note, also, that Amos does not actually mean that the women are cows. He speaks to them as human beings.
>... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>. (Acts 26:14 ULB)
>And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; <u>we are the clay</u>. <u>You are our potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
A goad is a pointed stick that a person pokes his cattle with to make them move in a certain direction. Sometimes cattle resist their master and kick the sharp stick and hurt themselves. Instead of following Jesus, Paul was persecuting people who followed Jesus. He was resisting Jesus. So Jesus spoke about Paul resisting him as if he were an ox resisting its master and kicking the sharp stick.
The example above has two related metaphors. The topics are "we" and "you," and the images are "clay and "potter." The intended point of comparison between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material: the potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The point of comparison between the potter's clay and "us" is that neither the clay nor God's people have a right to complain about what they are becoming.
>Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of <u>the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees</u>." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
>Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of <u>the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees</u>." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." (Matthew 16:6-7 ULB)
Jesus used a metaphor here, but his disciples did not realize it. When he said "yeast," they thought he was talking about bread, but "yeast" was the image in his metaphor, and the topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples (the original audience) did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the metaphor in the same way that the original readers would have understood it, go ahead and use it. Be sure to test the translation to make sure that people do understand it in the right way.
If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a "dead" metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
1. If the metaphor seems to be a "live" metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as "like" or "as." See [Simile](../figs-simile/01.md).
1. If the target audience would not know the **image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
1. If the target audience would not use that **image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
@ -122,55 +63,37 @@ If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.
1. If the target audience would not know the intended **point of comparison** between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
1. If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a "dead" metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
* **Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, <u>fell at his feet</u>.** (Mark 5:22 ULT)
* Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, <u>immediately bowed down in front of him</u>.
1. If the metaphor seems to be a "live" metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
* **It was because of your <u>hard hearts</u> that he wrote you this law,** (Mark 10:5 ULT)
* It was because of your <u>hard hearts</u> that he wrote you this law,
There is no change to this one - but it must be tested to make sure that the target audience correctly understands this metaphor.
1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as "like" or "as."
* **And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
* And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are <u>like</u> clay. You are <u>like</u> a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.
* **Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULB)
* Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are <u>like</u> clay. You are <u>like</u> a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.
1. If the target audience would not know the **image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
* **Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>.** (Acts 26:14 ULT)
* Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to <u>kick against a pointed stick</u>.
* **... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>.** (Acts 26:14 ULB)
* ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to <u>kick against a pointed prodding stick</u>.
1. If the target audience would not use that **image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
* **And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
* "And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>wood</u>. You are our <u>carver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand."
* "And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>string</u>. You are the <u>weaver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand."
* **Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULB)
* Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>wood</u>. You are our <u>carver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.
* Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>string</u>. You are the <u>weaver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.
1. If the target audience would not know what the **topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
* **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
* **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULB)
* Yahweh lives; <u>He is my rock</u>. May he be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
1. If the target audience would not know the intended **point of comparison** between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
* **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
* Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he is the rock <u>under which I can hide from my enemies</u>. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
* **Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>.** (Acts 26:14 ULT)
* Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? You <u>fight against me and hurt yourself like an ox that kicks against its owner's pointed stick</u>.
* **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULB)
* Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he <u>protects me like the rock under which I can hide from my enemies</u>. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
* **... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>.** (Acts 26:14 ULB)
* ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? You <u>fight against me and hurt yourself like an ox that kicks against its owner's goad</u>.
1. If none of these strategies are satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.
* **I will make you become <u>fishers of men</u>.** (Mark 1:17 ULT)
* I will make you become <u>people who gather men</u>.
* Now you gather fish. I will make you <u>gather people</u>.
* **... I will make you <u>fishers of men</u>.** (Mark 1:17 ULB)
* ... I will make you <u>people who gather men</u>.
* ... Now you gather fish. I will make you <u>gather people</u>.
To learn more about specific metaphors, see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).

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### Description
A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that its speakers no longer regard it as one concept standing for another. Dead metaphors are extremely common. Examples in English are "table leg," "family tree," "leaf" meaning a page in a book, and "crane" meaning a large machine for lifting heavy loads. English speakers simply think of these words as having more than one meaning. Examples in Biblical Hebrew are "hand" to mean "power," "face" to mean "presence," and speaking of emotions or moral qualities as if they were "clothing."
**Patterned Pairs of Concepts acting as Metaphors**
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction UP often stands for the concept of MORE or BETTER. Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as "The price of gasoline is going *up*," "A *highly* intelligent man," and also the opposite kind of idea: "The temperature is going *down*," and "I am feeling very *low*."
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world's languages, because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities, such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities, as if they were objects that could be seen or held, as if they were body parts, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
When these metaphors are used in normal ways, it is rare that the speaker and audience regard them as figurative speech. Examples of metaphors in English that go unrecognized are:
* "Turn the heat *up*." HOTTER is spoken of as UP.
* "Turn the radio *up*. LOUDER is spoken of as UP.
* "Let us *go ahead* with our debate." DOING WHAT WAS PLANNED is spoken of as WALKING or MOVING FORWARD.
* "A *flow* of words" WORDS are spoken of as LIQUIDS.
English speakers do not view these as unusual or metaphorical expressions, so it would be wrong to translate them into other languages in a way that would lead people to pay special attention to them as figurative speech.
For a description of important patterns of this kind of metaphor in biblical languages, please see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and the pages it will direct you to.
When translating something that is a dead metaphor into another language, do not treat it as a metaphor. Instead, just use the best expression for that thing or concept in the target language.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus misunderstand it.
### Examples from the Bible
In the Bible, behaving in certain ways is often spoken of as walking in certain ways.
> In the past ages, he allowed all the nations <u>to walk</u> in their own ways. (Acts 14:16 ULB)
> ... so also we might <u>walk</u> in newness of life. (Romans 6:4 ULB)
In the Bible, teaching is often spoken of as leading, and believing or doing the wrong thing is often spoken of as going astray.
>Do you not know that his kindness is meant <u>to lead</u> you to repentance? (Romans 2:4 ULB)
>Many false prophets will rise up and <u>lead</u> many <u>astray</u>. (Matthew 24:11 ULB)
In the Bible, attitudes and emotions are often spoken of as if they were clothing that could be put on or taken off. Putting on an attitude represents starting to have that attitude, and taking off an attitude represents stopping having that attitude.
>Therefore, as God's chosen ones, holy and beloved, <u>put on a heart of</u> mercy, kindness, humility, gentleness, and patience. (Colossians 3:12 ULB)
> Therefore <u>take off</u> all sinful filth and abundant amounts of evil. (James 1:21 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the metaphor in the same way that the original readers would have understood it, go ahead and use it. Be sure to test the translation to make sure that people do understand it in the right way.
If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a "dead" metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a "dead" metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
* **... so also we might walk in newness of life.** (Romans 6:4 ULB)
* ... so also we might behave according to new way of living.
* **Do you not know that his kindness is meant <u>to lead</u> you to repentance?** (Romans 2:4 ULB)
* Do you not know that his kindness is meant to teach you to repent?
* **Many false prophets will rise up and <u>lead</u> many <u>astray</u>** (Matthew 24:11 ULB)
* Many false prophets will rise up and teach many people to believe lies.
* **... <u>put on a heart</u> of mercy, kindness, humility, gentleness, and patience.** (Colossians 3:12 ULB)
* be merciful, kind, humble, gentle and patient.

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What is a dead metaphor, and how can I translate a sentence that has one?

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Dead Metaphors

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### Description
A metaphor has three parts.
1. **Topic** - The thing someone speaks of is called the topic.
1. **Image** - The thing he calls it is the image.
1. **Point of Comparison** - The way or ways in which the author claims that the topic and image are similar are their points of comparison.
In the metaphor below, the speaker describes the woman he loves as a red rose. The woman (his "love") is the **topic**, and "red rose" is the **image**. Beauty and delicacy are the **points of comparison** that the speaker sees as similarities between both the topic and the image.
* My love is a red, red rose.
Often, as in the metaphor above, the speaker explicitly states the **topic** and the **image**, but he does not state the **points of comparison**. The speaker leaves it to the hearer to think of those points of comparison. Because the hearers must think of these ideas themselves, the speaker's message has a more powerful effect on the hearers.
Also in the Bible, normally the **topic** and the **image** are stated clearly, but not the **points of comparison**. The writer leaves it to the audience to think of and understand the points of comparison that are implied.
>Jesus said to them, "I am the bread of life; he who comes to me will not be hungry, and he who believes in me will never be thirsty." (John 6:35 ULB)
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **topic** is "I," and the **image** is "bread." Bread is a food that people ate all the time. The **point of comparison** between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have spiritual life.
#### Purposes of Metaphor
* One purpose of metaphor is to teach people about something that they do not know (the **topic**) by showing that it is like something that they already do know (the **image**).
* Another purpose is to emphasize that something has a particular quality or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
* Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the **topic** as they would feel about the **image**.

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What are the parts and purposes of a metaphor?

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Parts a Metaphor

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### Description
**Metonymy** is a figure of speech in which a thing or idea is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it. A **metonym** is a word or phrase used as a substitute for something it is associated with.
>and <u>the blood</u> of Jesus his Son cleanses us from all sin. (1 John 1:7 ULT)
The blood represents Christ's death.
>He took <u>the cup</u> in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>This cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you. (Luke 22:20 ULT)
The cup represents the wine that is in the cup.
#### Metonymy can be used
* to a shorter way of referring to something
* to shorten the way of referring to something
* to make an abstract idea more meaningful by referring to it with the name of a physical object associated with it
### Reason this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
The Bible uses metonymy very often. Speakers of some languages are not used to metonymy and they may not recognize it when they read it in the Bible. If they do not recognize the metonymy, they will not understand the passage or, worse yet, they will get a wrong understanding of the passage. Whenever a metonym is used, people need to be able to understand what it represents.
### Examples from the Bible
>The Lord God will give him <u>the throne</u> of his father, David. (Luke 1:32 ULT)
>... and <u>the blood</u> of Jesus his Son cleanses us from all sin. (1 John 1:7 ULB)
The blood represents Christ's death. Because of Jesus death', people who believe in him are cleansed from all sin.
>He took <u>the cup</u> in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>This cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you." (Luke 22:20 ULB)
The cup represents the wine that was in the cup. The wine was a symbol of Jesus' blood, by which he confirmed the new covenant.
>The Lord God will give him <u>the throne</u> of his ancestor David. (Luke 1:32 ULB)
A throne represents the authority of a king. "Throne" is a metonym for "kingly authority," "kingship" or "reign." This means that God would make him become the king that would follow King David.
>Immediately his <u>mouth</u> was opened (Luke 1:64 ULT)
>Immediately his <u>mouth</u> was opened ... (Luke 1:64 ULB)
The mouth here represents the power to speak. This means that he was able to talk again.
> ... who warned you to flee from <u>the wrath</u> that is coming? (Luke 3:7 ULT)
>Who warned you to flee from <u>the wrath</u> that is coming? (Luke 3:7 ULB)
The word "wrath" or "anger" is a metonym for "punishment." God was extremely angry with the people, and as a result, he would punish them.
@ -41,19 +45,15 @@ If people would easily understand the metonym, consider using it. Otherwise, her
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the metonym along with the name of the thing it represents.
* **He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>This cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.** (Luke 22:20 ULT)
* "He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>The wine in this cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you."
* **He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>This cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.** (Luke 22:20 ULB)
* He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "<u>The wine in this cup</u> is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.
1. Use the name of the thing the metonym represents.
* **The Lord God will give him <u>the throne</u> of his father, David.** (Luke 1:32 ULT)
* "The Lord God will give him <u>the kingly authority</u> of his father, David."
* "The Lord God will <u>make him king</u> like his ancestor, King David."
* **who warned you to flee from <u>the wrath</u> to come?** (Luke 3:7 ULT)
* "who warned you to flee from God's coming <u>punishment</u>?"
* **The Lord God will give him <u>the throne</u> of his father, David.** (Luke 1:32 ULB)
* The Lord God will give him <u>the kingly authority</u> of his father, David.
* The Lord God will <u>make him king</u> like his ancestor, King David.
* **Who warned you to flee from <u>the wrath</u> to come?** (Luke 3:7 ULB)
* Who warned you to flee from God's coming <u>punishment</u>?
To learn about some common metonymies, see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md).

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### Description
In some languages an adjective can be used to refer to a class of things that the adjective describes. When it does, it acts like a noun. For example, the word "rich" is an adjective. Here are two sentences that show that "rich" is an adjective.
> ... <u> The rich man</u> had huge numbers of flocks and herds ... (2 Samuel 12:2 ULT)
In some languages an adjective can be used to refer to a class of things that the adjective describes. When it does, it acts like a noun. For example, the word "strong" is an adjective. Here are two sentences that show that "strong" is an adjective.
The adjective "rich" comes before the word "man" and describes "man."
><u>He will not be rich</u>; his wealth will not last ... (Job 15:29 ULT)
In the sentence below, the adjective "strong" comes before the word "man" and describes the man.
The adjective "rich" comes after the verb "be" and describes "He."
* <u>The strong man</u> carried the heavy load.
Here is a sentence that shows that "rich" can also function as a noun.
In the sentence below, the adjective "strong" comes after the verb "be" and describes "he."
>…<u>the rich</u> must not give more than the half shekel, and <u>the poor</u> must not give less. (Exodus 30:15 ULT)
* He exercises a lot because he wants <u>to be strong</u>.
In Exodus 30:15, the word "rich" acts as a noun in the phrase "the rich," and it refers to rich people. The word "poor" also acts as a noun and refers to poor people.
Here is a sentence that shows that "strong" can also function as a noun. It refers to strong people in general.
### Reason this is a translation issue
* <u>The strong</u> can often help those who are weak.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Many times in the Bible adjectives are used as nouns to describe a group of people.
* Some languages do not use adjectives in this way.
@ -24,12 +24,17 @@ In Exodus 30:15, the word "rich" acts as a noun in the phrase "the rich," and it
### Examples from the Bible
>The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of <u>the righteous</u>. (Psalms 125:3 ULT)
>The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of <u>the righteous</u>. (Psalm 125:3 ULB)
"The righteous" here are people who are righteous, not one particular righteous person.
>Blessed are <u>the meek</u> (Matthew 5:5 ULT)
"The meek" here are all people who are meek, not one particular meek person.
>Blessed are <u>the meek</u> (Matthew 5:5 ULB)
"The meek" here are people who are meek, not one particular meek person.
>... <u>the rich</u> must not give more than the half shekel, and <u>the poor</u> must not give less. (Exodus 30:15 ULB)
"The rich" here are poeple who are meek, and "the poor" are people who are poor.
### Translation Strategies
@ -40,10 +45,8 @@ If your language uses adjectives as nouns to refer to a class of people, conside
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the adjective with a plural form of the noun that the adjective describes.
* **The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of <u>the righteous</u>.** (Psalms 125:3 ULT)
* **The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of <u>the righteous</u>.** (Psalm 125:3 ULB)
* The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of <u>righteous people</u>.
* **Blessed are <u>the meek</u> ...** (Matthew 5:5 ULT)
* **Blessed are <u>the meek</u> ...** (Matthew 5:5 ULB)
* Blessed are <u>people who are meek</u> ...

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#### Changes in Word Order
Word order can change if the sentence:
Word order can change if
* is a question or command
* describes a state of being (He is happy. He is tall.)
* expresses a condition, such as with the the word "if"
* has a location
* has a time element
* is in a poem
* the sentence is a question or command
* the sentence describes a state of being (He is happy. He is tall.)
* the sentence expresses a condition, such as with the the word "if"
* the sentence has a location
* the sentence has a time element
* the sentence is in a poem
Word order can also change
Word order can also change if
* if there is some kind of emphasis on a certain part of the sentence
* if the sentence is really about something other than the subject
* there is some kind of emphasis on a certain part of the sentence
* the sentence is really about something other than the subject
### Translation Principles
### Translation principles
* Know which word order is preferred in your language.
* Use your language's preferred word order unless there is some reason in your language to change it.
* Translate the sentence so that the meaning is accurate and clear and so that it sounds natural.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_order.

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A parable is a short story that makes truth easy to understand and hard to forget.
### Description
A parable is a short story that is told to teach a truth. Though the events in a parable could happen, they did not actually happen. They are told only to teach a truth. Parables rarely contain the names of specific people. (This may help you identify what is a parable and what is an account of a real event.) Parables often have figures of speech such as simile and metaphor.
>Then he also told them a parable. "Can a blind person guide another blind person? If he did, they would both fall into a pit, would they not?" (Luke 6:39 ULT)
This parable teaches that if a person does not have spiritual understanding, he cannot help someone else to understand spiritual things.
### Examples from the Bible
>Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a basket, but rather, on the lampstand, and it shines for everyone in the house. Let your light shine before people in such a way that they see your good deeds and praise your Father who is in heaven. (Matthew 5:15-16 ULT)
>Then he also told them a parable. "Can a blind person guide another blind person? If he did, they would both fall into a pit, would they not?" (Luke 6:39 ULB)
This parable teaches that if a person does not have spiritual understanding, he cannot help someone else to understand spiritual things.
>Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a basket, but rather, on the lampstand, and it shines for everyone in the house. Let your light shine before people in such a way that they see your good deeds and praise your Father who is in heaven. (Matthew 5:15-16 ULB)
This parable teaches us not to hide the way we live for God from other people.
>Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches." (Matthew 13:31-32 ULT)
>Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants. It becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches." (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB)
This parable teaches that the kingdom of God may seem small at first, but it will grow and spread throughout the world.
@ -25,18 +26,14 @@ This parable teaches that the kingdom of God may seem small at first, but it wil
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If a parable is hard to understand because it has unknown things in it, you can replace the unknown things with things that people in your culture know. However, be careful to keep the teaching the same.
* **Jesus said to them, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a <u>lampstand</u>"**. (Mark 4:21 ULT) - If people do not know what a lampstand is, you could substitute something else that people put a light on so it can give light to the house.
* **Jesus said to them, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a <u>lampstand</u>."** (Mark 4:21 ULB) - If people do not know what a lampstand is, you could substitute something else that people put a light on so it can give light to the house.
* Jesus said to them, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on <u>a high shelf</u>.
* **Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and <u>sowed</u> in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."** (Matthew 13:31-32 ULT) - To sow seeds means to toss them so that they scatter on the ground. If people are not familiar with sowing, you can substitute planting.
* **Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and <u>sowed</u> in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants. It becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."** (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB) - To sow seeds means to toss them so that they scatter on the ground. If people are not familiar with sowing, you can substitute planting.
* Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and <u>planted</u> in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."
1. If the teaching of the parable is unclear, consider telling a little about what it teaches in the introduction, such as "Jesus told this story about being generous."
* **<u>Jesus said to them</u>, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a lampstand"**. (Mark 4:21 ULT)
* <u>Jesus told them a parable about why they should witness openly.</u> "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a lampstand." (Mark 4:21 ULT)
* **<u>Then Jesus presented another parable to them.</u> He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."** (Matthew 13:31-32 ULT)
* **<u>Jesus said to them</u>, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a lampstand"**. (Mark 4:21 ULB)
* <u>Jesus told them a parable about why they should witness openly.</u> "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a lampstand."
* **<u>Then Jesus presented another parable to them.</u> He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."** (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB)
* <u>Then Jesus presented another parable to them about how the Kingdom of God grows</u>. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."

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@ -14,51 +14,51 @@ Synonymous parallelism (the kind in which the two phrases mean the same thing) i
* It shows that something is very important by saying it more than once and in more than one way.
* It helps the hearer to think more deeply about the idea by saying it in different ways.
* It makes the language more beautiful and above the ordinary way of speaking.
#### Reason this is a translation issue
Some languages would not use synonymous parallelism. They would either think it odd that someone said the same thing twice, or they would think that the two phrases must have some difference in meaning. For them it is confusing, rather than beautiful.
* It makes the expression of ideas more beautiful and above the ordinary way of speaking.
Note: We use the term "synonymous parallelism" for long phrases or clauses that have the same meaning. We use the term [Doublet](../figs-doublet/01.md) for words or very short phrases that mean basically the same thing and are used together.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Speakers of some languages do not use synonymous parallelism. If there are two phrases or sentences, they expect them to have different meanings. Consequently they do not understand that the repetition of ideas serves to emphasize the idea.
### Examples from the Bible
**The second clause or phrase means the same as the first.**
##### The second clause or phrase means the same as the first.
>Your word is a lamp to my feet
>and a light for my path. (Psalm 119:105 ULT)
>and a light for my path. (Psalm 119:105 ULB)
Both parts of the sentence are metaphors saying that God's word teaches people how to live.
Both parts of the sentence are metaphors saying that God's word teaches people how to live. As a lamp or light shows the way for a person walking along a path, God's word shows people how to live.
>You make him to rule over the works of your hands;
>you have put all things under his feet (Psalm 8:6 ULT)
>you have put all things under his feet (Psalm 8:6 ULB)
Both lines say that God made man the ruler of everything.
**The second clarifies or strengthens the meaning of the first.**
##### The second clarifies or strengthens the meaning of the first.
>The eyes of Yahweh are everywhere,
>keeping watch over the evil and the good. (Proverbs 15:3 ULT)
>keeping watch over the evil and the good. (Proverbs 15:3 ULB)
The second line tells more specifically what Yahweh watches.
**The second completes what is said in the first.**
##### The second completes what is said in the first.
>I lift up my voice to Yahweh,
>and he answers me from his holy hill. (Psalm 3:4 ULT)
>and he answers me from his holy hill. (Psalm 3:4 ULB)
The second line tells what Yahweh does in response to what the person does in the first clause.
**The second says something that contrasts with the first, but adds to the same idea.**
##### The second says something that contrasts with the first, but adds to the same idea.
>For Yahweh approves of the way of the righteous,
>but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6 ULT)
>but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6 ULB)
This contrasts what happens to righteous people with what happens to wicked people.
>A gentle answer turns away wrath,
>but a harsh word stirs up anger. (Proverbs 15:1 ULT)
>but a harsh word stirs up anger. (Proverbs 15:1 ULB)
This contrasts what happens when someone gives a gentle answer with what happens when someone says something harsh.
@ -73,26 +73,20 @@ For most kinds of parallelism, it is good to translate both of the clauses or ph
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Combine the ideas of both clauses into one.
* **Until now you have deceived me and told me lies.** (Judges 16:13, ULT) - Delilah expressed this idea twice to emphasize that she was very upset.
* "Until now you have deceived me with your lies."
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULT) - The phrase "all the paths he takes" is a metaphor for "all he does."
* "Yahweh pays attention to everything a person does."
* **For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, and he will fight in court against Israel.** (Micah 6:2 ULT) - This parallelism describes one serious disagreement that Yahweh had with one group of people. If this is unclear, the phrases can be combined:
* "For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, Israel."
* **Until now you have deceived me and told me lies.** (Judges 16:13, ULB) - Delilah expressed this idea twice to emphasize that she was very upset.
* Until now you have deceived me with your lies.
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULB) - The phrase "all the paths he takes" is a metaphor for "all he does."
* Yahweh pays attention to everything a person does.
* **For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, and he will fight in court against Israel.** (Micah 6:2 ULB) - This parallelism describes one serious disagreement that Yahweh had with one group of people. If this is unclear, the phrases can be combined:
* For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, Israel.
1. If it appears that the clauses are used together to show that what they say is really true, you could include words that emphasize the truth such as "truly" or "certainly."
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULT)
* "Yahweh truly sees everything a person does."
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULB)
* Yahweh truly sees everything a person does.
1. If it appears that the clauses are used together to intensify an idea in them, you could use words like "very," "completely" or "all."
* **you have deceived me and told me lies.** (Judges 16:13 ULT)
* "All you have done is lie to me."
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULT)
* "Yahweh sees absolutely everything that a person does."
* **you have deceived me and told me lies.** (Judges 16:13 ULB)
* All you have done is lie to me.
* **Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.** (Proverbs 5:21 ULB)
* Yahweh sees absolutely everything that a person does.

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@ -1,35 +1,29 @@
### Description
The predictive past is a figure of speech that uses the past tense to refer to things that will happen in the future. This is sometimes done in prophecy to show that the event will certainly happen. It is also called the prophetic perfect.
> Therefore my people have gone into captivity for lack of understanding;
> their leaders go hungry, and their masses have nothing to drink. (Isaiah 5:13 ULT)
In the example above, the people of Israel had not yet gone into captivity, but God spoke of their going into captivity as if it had already happened because he had decided that they certainly would go into captivity.
#### Reason this is a translation issue:
### Reasons this is a translation issue:
Readers who are not aware of the past tense being used in prophecy to refer to future events may find it confusing.
### Examples from the Bible
>Now all the entrances to Jericho were closed because of the army of Israel. No one went out and no one came in. Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I have handed over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers." (Joshua 6:1-2 ULT)
>Therefore my people have gone into captivity for lack of understanding;
>their leaders go hungry, and their masses have nothing to drink. (Isaiah 5:13 ULB)
In the example above, the people of Israel had not yet gone into captivity, but God spoke of their going into captivity as if it had already happened because he had decided that they certainly would go into captivity.
>Now all the entrances to Jericho were closed because of the army of Israel. No one went out and no one came in. Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I have handed over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers." (Joshua 6:1-2 ULB)
>For to us a child has been born, to us a son has been given;
>and the rule will be on his shoulder; (Isaiah 9:6 ULT)
>and the rule will be on his shoulder; (Isaiah 9:6 ULB)
In the examples above, God spoke of things that would happen in the future as if they had already happened.
> And about these people also Enoch, the seventh in line from Adam, foretold, saying, "Look, the Lord came with tens of thousands of his holy ones, (Jude 1:14 ULT)
>And about these people also Enoch, the seventh in line from Adam, foretold, saying, "Look, the Lord came with tens of thousands of his holy ones, (Jude 1:14 ULB)
Enoch was speaking of something that would happen in the future, but he used the past tense when he said "the Lord came.”
### Translation Strategies
If the past tense would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.
@ -42,16 +36,16 @@ If the past tense would be natural and give the right meaning in your language,
1. Use the future tense to refer to future events.
* **For to us a child <u>has been born</u>, to us a son <u>has been given</u>;** (Isaiah 9:6a ULT)
* "For to us a child <u>will be born</u>, to us a son <u>will be given</u>;
* **For to us a child <u>has been born</u>, to us a son <u>has been given</u>** ... (Isaiah 9:6a ULB)
* For to us a child <u>will be born</u>, to us a son <u>will be given</u> ...
1. If it refers to something that would happen very soon, use a form that shows that.
* **Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>have handed</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."** (Joshua 6:2 ULT)
* **Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>have handed</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."** (Joshua 6:2 ULB)
* Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>am about to hand</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."
1. Some languages may use the present tense to show that something will happen very soon.
* **Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>have handed</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."** (Joshua 6:2 ULT)
* **Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>have handed</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."** (Joshua 6:2 ULB)
* Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I <u>am handing</u> over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."

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@ -2,18 +2,7 @@
### Description
Personification is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of something as if it could do things that animals or people can do. People often do this because it makes it easier to talk about things that we cannot see:
Such as wisdom:
>Does not Wisdom call out? (Proverbs 8:1 ULT)
Or sin:
>sin crouches at the door (Genesis 4:7 ULT)
People also do this because it is sometimes easier to talk about people's relationships with non-human things, such as wealth, as if they were like relationships between people.
>You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULT)
Personification is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of something as if it could do things that animals or people can do. People often do this because it makes it easier to talk about things that we cannot see, such as wisdom or sin. People also do this because it is sometimes easier to talk about people's relationships with non-human things, such as wealth, as if they were like relationships between people. (See examples from the Bible below.)
### Reasons this is a translation issue
@ -22,38 +11,52 @@ People also do this because it is sometimes easier to talk about people's relati
### Examples from the Bible
>You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULT)
>Does not Wisdom call out? Does not Understanding raise her voice? (Proverbs 8:1 ULB)
The author speaks of wisdom and understanding as if they are a woman who calls out to teach people. This means that they are not something hidden, but something obvious that people should pay attention to.
>...if you do not do what is right, sin crouches at the door and desires to control you ... (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
God speaks of sin as a wild animal that is waiting for the chance to attack. This shows how dangerous sin is.
>You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULB)
Jesus speaks of wealth as if it were a master whom people might serve. Loving money and basing one's decisions on it is like serving it as a slave would serve his master.
>Does not Wisdom call out? Does not Understanding raise her voice? (Proverbs 8:1 ULT)
>... even the winds and the sea obey him ... (Matthew 8:27 ULB)
The author speaks of wisdom and understanding as if they are a woman who calls out to teach people. This means that they are not something hidden, but something obvious that people should pay attention to.
When Jesus calms a storm by rebuking the wind and the sea, his disciples speak of the wind and the sea as if they are able to hear and obey Jesus as people can.
### Translation Strategies
If the personification would be understood clearly, consider using it. If it would not be understood, here are some other ways for translating it.
1. Add words or phrases to make it clear.
1. Use words such as "like" or "as" to show that the sentences is not to be understood literally.
1. Add words or phrases to make it clear.
1. Find a way to translate it without the personification.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Add words or phrases to make it clear.
1. Use words such as "like" or "as" to show that the sentence is not to be understood literally.
* **... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.** (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
* ... it is <u>as if</u> sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.
* ** ... <u>sin crouches</u> at the door** (Genesis 4:7 ULT) - God speaks of sin as a wild animal that is waiting for the chance to attack. This shows how dangerous sin is. An additional phrase can be added to make this danger clear.
* ... <u>sin</u> is at your door, <u>waiting to attack you</u>
1. Add words or phrases that make the image more clear.
* **... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.** (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
* ... sin is <u>like a wild animal</u> crouching at the door, desiring to control you.
* ... sin is crouching at the door <u>in order to attack you,</u> and it desires to control you.
1. Use words such as "like" or "as" to show that the sentences is not to be understood literally.
1. Add words or phrases to to show how something is like a person or animal.
* **... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.** (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
* ... <u>sin</u> is dangerous, like an animal crouching at the door and desiring to control you.
* ** ... sin crouches at the door** (Genesis 4:7 ULT) - This can be translated with the word "as."
* ... sin is crouching at the door, just <u>as a wild animal does waiting to attack a person</u>.
1. Find a way to translate it without the personification.
* ** ... even the <u>winds and the sea obey him</u>** (Matthew 8:27 ULT) - The men speak of the "wind and the sea as if they are able to hear" and obey Jesus as people can. This could also be translated without the idea of obedience by speaking of Jesus controlling them.
* He even <u>controls the winds and the sea</u>.
1. Find a way to translate it without the personification. (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
* **... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.**
* You are in danger of sinning and not being able to stop sinning.
* **You cannot serve God and wealth.** (Matthew 6:24 ULB)
* You cannot be devoted to both God and wealth.
* You cannot serve God if you want most to have wealth.
**Note**: We have broadened our definition of "personification" to include "zoomorphism" (speaking of other things as if they had animal characteristics) and "anthropomorphism" (speaking of non-human things as if they had human characteristics.)

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@ -12,19 +12,19 @@ An **indirect quotation** occurs when a speaker reports what someone else said,
* John said that <u>he</u> did not know at what time <u>he</u> would arrive.
### Why this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
In some languages, reported speech can be expressed by either direct or indirect quotations. In other languages, it is more natural to use one rather than the other, or there is a certain meaning implied by using one rather than the other. So for each quotation, translators need to decide whether it is best to translate it as a direct quotation or an indirect quotation.
### Examples from the Bible
The verses in the examples below contain both direct and indirect quotations. In the explanation below the verse, we have underlined the quotations.
>He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them." (Luke 5:14 ULT)
>He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them." (Luke 5:14 ULB)
* Indirect quote: He instructed him <u>to tell no one</u>,
* Direct quote: but told him, "<u>Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest…</u>"
* Direct quote: but told him, "<u>Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest.</u>"
>Being asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God would come, Jesus answered them and said, "The kingdom of God is not something that can be observed. Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!' because the kingdom of God is among you." (Luke 17:20-21 ULT)
>Being asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God would come, Jesus answered them and said, "The kingdom of God is not something that can be observed. Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!' because the kingdom of God is among you." (Luke 17:20-21 ULB)
* Indirect quote: Being asked by the Pharisees <u>when the kingdom of God would come,</u>
* Direct quote: Jesus answered them and said, "<u>The kingdom of God is not something that can be observed. Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!' because the kingdom of God is among you.</u>"
@ -40,13 +40,10 @@ If the kind of quote used in the source text would work well in your language, c
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If a direct quote would not work well in your language, change it to an indirect quote.
* **He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "<u>Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them.</u>"** (Luke 5:14 ULT)
* **He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "<u>Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them.</u>"** (Luke 5:14 ULB)
* He instructed him to tell no one, but <u>to go on his way, and to show himself to the priest and to offer a sacrifice for his cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them</u>."
1. If an indirect quote would not work well in your language, change it to a direct quote.
* **He instructed him, <u>to tell no one</u>, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them."** (Luke 5:14 ULT)
* **He instructed him, <u>to tell no one</u>, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them."** (Luke 5:14 ULB)
* He instructed him, "<u>Tell no one</u>. Just go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them."
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_quotations.

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### Description
A quotation may have a quote within it, and quotes that are inside of other quotes can also have quotes within them. When a quote has quotes within it, we can talk about it having layers of quotation, and each of the quotes is a layer. When there are many layers of quotes inside of quotes, it can be hard for listeners and readers to know who is saying what. Some languages use a combination of direct quotes and indirect quotes to make it easier.
A quotation may have a quote within it, and quotes that are inside of other quotes can also have quotes within them. When a quote has quotes within it, we can talk about it having layers of quotation, and each of the quotes is a layer. When there are many layers of quotes inside of quotes, it can be hard for listeners and readers to know who is saying what
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* When there is a quote within a quote, the listener needs to know who the speaker of each quote is and to whom he is speaking.
* When there is a quote within a quote, the listener needs to know who the pronouns refer to. For example if a quote that is inside a quote has the word "I," the listener needs to know whether "I" refers to the speaker of the inner quote or the outer quote.
1. When there is a quote within a quote, the listener needs to know who the pronouns refer to. For example if a quote that is inside a quote has the word "I," the listener needs to know whether "I" refers to the speaker of the inner quote or the outer quote.
1. Some languages make this clear by using different kinds of quotes when there are quotes within quotes. They may use direct quotes for some and indirect quotes for others.
1. Some languages do not use indirect quotes.
### Examples from the Bible
#### A quotation with only one layer
> But Paul said, "I was born a Roman citizen." (Acts 22:28 ULT)
>But Paul said, "<u>I was born a Roman citizen</u>." (Acts 22:28 ULB)
#### Quotations with two layers
>Jesus answered and said to them, "Be careful that no one leads you astray. For many will come in my name. They will say, 'I am the Christ,' and will lead many astray." Matthew 24:4-5 ULT
>Then some of his disciples said to one another, "What is this that he says to us, '<u>A short amount of time you will no longer see me and after another short amount of time you will see me</u>,' and, '<u>Because I go to the Father</u>'?" (John 16:17 ULB)
The outermost layer is what Jesus said to his disciples. The second layer is what other people will say.
>Jesus answered, "You say that I am a king." (John 18:37 ULT)
The outermost layer is what the disciples said to one another. The second layer is what Jesus had said. (We have underlined the second layer.)
>Jesus answered, "You say that <u>I am a king</u>." (John 18:37 ULB)
The outermost layer is what Jesus said to Pilate. The second layer is what Pilate said about Jesus.
The outermost layer is what Jesus said to Pilate. The second layer is what Pilate said about Jesus. (We have underlined the second layer.)
#### A quotation with three layers
> Abraham said, "... I said to her, 'You must show me this faithfulness as my wife: At every place where we go, say about me, <u>"He is my brother."</u> ' " (Genesis 20:10-13 ULT)
>Then the chief priests of the Jews said to Pilate, "Do not write, 'The King of the Jews,' but rather, 'This one said, "<u>I am King of the Jews</u>."'" (John 19:21 ULB)
The outermost layer is what Abraham said to Abimelech. The second layer is what Abraham had told his wife. The third layer is what he wanted his wife to say. (We have underlined the third layer.)
The outermost layer is what the chief priests said to Pilate. The second layer is what the priests want Pilate to write. The third layer is what "This one" supposedly said. (We have underlined the third layer.)
#### A quotation with four layers
>They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: <u>'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'</u> " ' " (2 Kings 1:6 ULT)
>They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: <u>'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'</u>"'" (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
The outermost layer is what the messengers said to the king. The second layer is what the man who had met the messengers told them. The third is what that man wanted the messengers to say to the king. The fourth is what Yahweh said. (We have underlined the fourth layer.)
The outermost layer is what the messengers said to the king. The second layer is what the man who had met the messengers told them. The third is what that man wanted the messengers to say to the king. The fourth is what had Yahweh said. (We have underlined the fourth layer.)
### Translation Strategies
Some languages use only direct quotes. Other languages use a combination of direct quotes and indirect quotes. In those languages it might sound strange and perhaps even be confusing if there are many layers of direct quotes.
1. Translate all of the quotes as direct quotes.
1. Alternate two kinds of quote marks to show layers of direct quotation. English alternates double quote marks and single quote marks. (For other kinds of quote marks, see [Quotations and Quote Margins](../writing-quotations/01.md))
1. Translate one or some of the quotes as indirect quotes. (see [Direct and Indirect Quotations](../figs-quotations/01.md))
1. If a quotation is very long and has many layers of quotation in it, indent the main overall quote, and use quote marks only for the direct quotes inside of it.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Translate all of the quotes as direct quotes. In the example below we have underlined the indirect quotes in the ULT and the quotes that we have changed to direct quotes below it.
1. Alternate two kinds of quote marks to show layers of direct quotation as shown in the ULB text below.
* **Festus presented Paul's case to the king; he said, "A certain man was left behind here by Felix as a prisoner. ...I was puzzled about how to investigate this matter, and I asked him <u>if he would go to Jerusalem to be judged there about these things</u>. But when Paul called <u>to be kept under guard for the Emperor's decision</u>, I ordered him <u>to be kept until I send him to Caesar</u>."** (Acts 25:14-21 ULT)
* Festus presented Paul's case to the king; he said, "A certain man was left behind here by Felix as a prisoner. ...I was puzzled about how to investigate this matter, and I asked him, <u>'Will you go to Jerusalem to be judged there about these things?'</u> But when Paul said, <u>'I want to be kept under guard for the Emperor's decision,'</u> I told the guard, <u>'Keep him under guard until I send him to Caesar.'</u>"
* **They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'"** (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
1. Translate one or some of the quotes as indirect quotes. In English the word "that" can come before indirect quotes. It is underlined in the examples below. The pronouns that changed because of the indirect quote are also underlined.
1. Translate one or some of the quotes as indirect quotes in order to use fewer quote marks. In the example below, the word "that" introduces an indirect quote of what the messengers said to the king. Within that indirect quote, there are some direct quotes.
* **Then Yahweh spoke to Moses and said, "I have heard the grumbling of the Israelites. Tell them, 'At twilight you will eat meat, and in the morning you will be filled with bread. Then you will know that I am Yahweh your God.' "** (Exodus 16:11-12 ULT)
* Then Yahweh spoke to Moses and said, "I have heard the grumbling of the Israelites. Tell them <u>that</u> at twilight <u>they</u> will eat meat, and in the morning <u>they</u> will be filled with bread. Then <u>they</u> will know that I am Yahweh <u>their</u> God."
* **They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'"** (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
* They told him <u>that</u> a man came to meet them who said to them, "Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, 'Yahweh says this: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die."'"
* **They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.' " ' "** (2 Kings 1:6 ULT)
* They told him <u>that</u> a man had come to meet <u>them</u> who said to <u>them</u>, "Go back to the king who sent you, and tell him <u>that</u> Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.' "
1. If a quotation is very long and has many layers of quotation in it, indent the main overall quote, and use quote marks only for the direct quotes inside of it.
* **They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'"** (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
* They said to him,
A man came to meet us who said to us, "Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, 'Yahweh says this: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die."'"

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All languages have ways of showing that the same person fills two different roles in a sentence. English does this by using **Reflexive pronouns**. These are pronouns that refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned in a sentence. In English the reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Other languages may have other ways to show this.
### Reason this is a translation issue
* Languages have different ways of showing that the same person fills two different roles in a sentence. For those languages, translators will need to know how to translate the English reflexive pronouns.
* The reflexive pronouns in English also have other functions.
### Uses of Reflexive Pronouns
**Uses of Reflexive Pronouns**
* To show that the same person or things fills two different roles in a sentence
* To emphasize a person or thing in the sentence
* To show that someone did something alone
* To show that someone or something was alone
* To emphasize a person or thing in a sentence
* To show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Languages have different ways of showing the things that reflexive pronouns in the ULB show.
* When translators read a reflexive pronoun in the ULB, they need to understand what that reflexive pronoun is used for.
* Translators need to know how to show those meanings in their own language.
### Examples from the Bible
Reflexive pronouns are used to show the same person or thing fills two different roles in a sentence.
<blockquote>If <u>I</u> should testify about <u>myself</u> alone, my testimony would not be true. (John 5:31 ULT) </blockquote>
##### The reflexive pronoun shows that the same person or thing fills two different roles in a sentence. Often the reflexive pronoun is the object of the sentence, and it refers to the same person that the subject refers to. (See [Sentence Structure](../figs-sentences/01.md))
>Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and <u>many</u> went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to purify <u>themselves</u>. (John 11:55 ULT)
>Then they picked up stones to throw at him, but <u>Jesus</u> hid <u>himself</u> and went out of the temple. (John 8:59 ULB)
Reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize a person or thing in the sentence.
<blockquote><u>Jesus himself</u> was not baptizing, but his disciples were (John 4:2 ULT) </blockquote>
"Jesus" is the subject of the verb "hid," and "himself" is the object of "hid." The word "himself" refers to Jesus.
> So they left the crowd, taking Jesus with them, since he was already in the boat. Other boats were also with him. And a violent windstorm arose and the waves were breaking into the boat so that the boat was already full. But <u>Jesus himself</u> was in the stern, asleep on a cushion. (Mark 4:36-38 ULT)
>If <u>I</u> should testify about <u>myself</u>, my testimony would not be true. (John 5:31 ULB)
Reflexive pronouns are used to show that someone did something alone.
>When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again up the mountain <u>by himself</u>. (John 6:15 ULT)
The word "I" is the subject of "testify," and "myself" is the object of "testify." The words "I" and "myself" both refer to Jesus.
Reflexive pronouns are used to show that someone or something was alone.
>He saw the linen cloths lying there and the cloth that had been on his head. <u>It</u> was not lying with the linen cloths but was rolled up in its place <u>by itself</u>. (John 20:6-7 ULT)
>Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and <u>many</u> went up to Jerusalem from the country before the Passover in order to purify <u>themselves</u>. (John 11:55 ULB)
"Many" is the subject of "purify," and "themselves" is the object of "purify." The word "themselves" refers to the many people.
##### The reflexive pronouns emphasizes a person or thing in the sentence.
>... <u>Jesus himself</u> was not baptizing, but his disciples were ... (John 4:2 ULB)
>So they left the crowd, taking Jesus with them, since he was already in the boat. ... And a violent windstorm arose and the waves were breaking into the boat so that the boat was already full. But <u>Jesus himself</u> was in the stern, asleep on a cushion. (Mark 4:36-38 ULB)
##### The reflexive pronoun shows that a person or thing was alone or did something alone.
>... while the kings who had come were <u>by themselves</u> in the field. (1 Chronicles 19:9 ULB)
>When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again up the mountain <u>by himself</u>. (John 6:15 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
If a reflexive pronoun would have the same function in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other strategies.
If a reflexive pronoun would have the same function in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other strategies that some languages use.
1. In some languages people put something on the verb to show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject.
1. In some languages people emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.
1. In some languages people emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it.
1. In some languages people show that someone did something alone by using a word like "alone."
1. In some languages people show that something was alone by using a phrase that tells about where it was.
1. Show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject by putting something on the verb.
1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.
1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it.
1. Show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone by using a word like "alone."
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. In some languages people put something on the verb to show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject.
* **If I should testify about <u>myself</u> alone, my testimony would not be true.** (John 5:31)
* "If I should <u>self-testify</u> alone, my testimony would not be true."
1. Show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject by putting something on the verb.
* **If I should testify about <u>myself</u>, my testimony would not be true.** (John 5:31)
* If I should <u>self-testify</u>, my testimony would not be true.
* **Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to <u>purify themselves</u>.** (John 11:55)
* "Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to <u>self-purify</u>."
1. In some languages people emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.
* **<u>He himself</u> took our sickness and bore our diseases.** (Matthew 8:17 ULT)
* "<u>It was he who</u> took our sickness and bore our diseases."
* Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to <u>self-purify</u>.
1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.
* **<u>He himself</u> took our sickness and bore our diseases.** (Matthew 8:17 ULB)
* <u>It was he who</u> took our sickness and bore our diseases.
* **<u>Jesus himself</u> was not baptizing, but his disciples were.** (John 4:2)
* "<u>It was not Jesus who</u> was baptizing, but his disciples were."
1. In some languages people emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it. English adds the reflexive pronoun.
* <u>It was not Jesus who</u> was baptizing, but his disciples were.
1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it. English uses the reflexive pronoun after the word it emphasizes.
* **Now Jesus said this to test Philip, for he <u>himself</u> knew what he was going to do.** (John 6:6)
1. In some languages people show that someone did something alone by using a word like "alone."
1. Show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone by using a word like "alone."
* **When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again up the mountain <u>by himself</u>.** (John 6:15)
* "When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again <u>alone</u> up the mountain."
* When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again <u>alone</u> up the mountain.
1. In some languages people show that something was alone by using a phrase that tells about where it was.
* **He saw the linen cloths lying there and the cloth that had been on his head. It was not lying with the linen cloths but was rolled up in its place <u>by itself</u>.** (John 20:6-7 ULT)
* "He saw the linen cloths lying there and the cloth that had been on his head. It was not lying with the linen cloths but was rolled up and lying <u>in it's own place</u>."

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A rhetorical question is a question that a speaker asks when he is more interested in expressing his attitude about something than in getting information about it. Speakers use rhetorical questions to express deep emotion or to encourage hearers to think deeply about something. The Bible contains many rhetorical questions, often to express surprise, to rebuke or scold the hearer, or to teach. Speakers of some languages use rhetorical questions for other purposes as well.
### Description
A rhetorical question is a question that a speaker uses for some purpose other than getting information. Some uses of rhetorical questions are to express strong emotions, to rebuke or scold someone, to introduce a topic to talk about it, or to teach something by reminding people of something they know and encouraging them to apply it to something new.
A rhetorical question is a question that strongly expresses the speaker's attitude toward something. Often the speaker is not looking for information at all, but if he is asking for information, it is not usually the information that the question appears to ask for. The speaker is more interested in expressing his attitude than in getting information.
>Those who stood by said, "<u>Is this how you insult God's high priest?</u>" (Acts 23:4 ULT)
The people who asked Paul this question were not asking about his way of insulting God’s high priest. Rather they used theis question to accuse Paul of insulting the high priest.
The Bible contains many rhetorical questions. Some of the purposes of these rhetorical questions are to express attitudes or feelings, to rebuke people, to teach something by reminding people of something they know and encouraging them to apply it to something new, and to introduce something they want to talk about.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Some languages do not use rhetorical questions; for them a question is always a request for information.
* Some languages use rhetorical questions, but for purposes that are more limited or different than in the Bible.
@ -19,45 +9,44 @@ The Bible contains many rhetorical questions. Some of the purposes of these rhet
### Examples from the Bible
>Do you not still rule the kingdom of Israel? (1 Kings 21:7 ULT)
##### To express strong emotions
>Why did I not die when I came out from the womb? (Job 3:11 ULB)
Job used the question above to show how sad he was that he had not died as soon as he was born. He wished that he had not lived.
Jezebel used the question above to remind King Ahab of something he already knew: he still ruled the kingdom of Israel. The rhetorical question made her point more strongly than if she had merely stated it, because it forced Ahab to admit the point himself. She did this in order to rebuke him for being unwilling to take over a poor man's property. She was implying that since he was the king of Israel, he had the power to take the man's property.
><u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her veils?</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number! (Jeremiah 2:32 ULT)
God used the question above to remind his people of something they already knew: a young woman would never forget her jewelry or a bride forget her veils. He then rebuked his people for forgetting him, who is so much greater than those things.
>Why did I not die when I came out from the womb? (Job 3:11 ULT)
Job used the question above to show deep emotion. This rhetorical question expresses how sad he was that he did not die as soon as he was born. He wished that he had not lived.
>And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me? (Luke 1:43 ULT)
>And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me? (Luke 1:43 ULB)
Elizabeth used the question above to show how surprised and happy she was that the mother of her Lord came to her.
>Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? (Matthew 7:9 ULT)
##### To rebuke or scold
>Those who stood by said, "<u>Is this how you insult God's high priest?</u>" (Acts 23:4 ULB)
The people who asked Paul this question were accusing him of insulting the high priest. They were not asking him how he insulted God’s high priest.
Jesus used the question above to remind the people of something they already knew: a good father would never give his son something bad to eat. By introducing this point, Jesus could go on to teach them about God with his next rhetorical question:
>Do you not still rule the kingdom of Israel? (1 Kings 21:7 ULB)
>Therefore, if you who are evil know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father from heaven give good things to those who ask him? (Matthew 7:11 ULT)
Jezebel used the question above to remind King Ahab that he still ruled the kingdom of Israel. The rhetorical question made her point more strongly than if she had merely stated it, because it forced Ahab to admit the point himself. She did this in order to rebuke him for being unwilling to take over a poor man's property. She was implying that since he was the king of Israel, he had the power to take the man's property.
><u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash?</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number! (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)
Jesus used this question to teach the people in an emphatic way that God gives good things to those who ask him.
><u>What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to?</u> It is like a mustard seed that a man took and threw into his garden... (Luke 13:18-19 ULT)
God used the question above to remind his people of something they already knew: a young woman would never forget her jewelry and a bride would never forget her sash. He then rebuked his people for forgetting him, who is so much greater than those things.
##### To introduce a topic
><u>What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to?</u> It is like a mustard seed that a man took and threw into his garden ... (Luke 13:18-19 ULB)
Jesus used the question above to introduce what he was going to talk about. He was going to compare the kingdom of God to something.
##### To teach
>Or which one of you, if his son asks for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? (Matthew 7:9 ULB)
Jesus used the question above to remind the people of something they already knew: a good father would never give his son something bad to eat. By introducing this point, Jesus could go on to teach them about God with his next rhetorical question:
>Therefore, if you who are evil know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father in heaven give good things to those who ask him? (Matthew 7:11 ULB)
Jesus used this question to teach the people in an emphatic way that God gives good things to those who ask him.
### Translation Strategies
In order to translate a rhetorical question accurately, first be sure that the question you are translating truly is a rhetorical question and is not an information question. Ask yourself, "Does the person asking the question already know the answer to the question?" If so, it is a rhetorical question. Or, if no one answers the question, is the one who asked it bothered that he did not get an answer? If not, it is a rhetorical question.
When you are sure that the question is rhetorical, then be sure that you know what the purpose of the rhetorical question is. Is it to encourage or rebuke or shame the hearer? Is it to bring up a new topic? Is it to do something else?
@ -74,37 +63,26 @@ If using the rhetorical question would be natural and give the right meaning in
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Add the answer after the question.
* **<u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her veils?</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!** (Jeremiah 2:32 ULT)
* Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her veils? <u>Of course not!</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!
* **Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone?** (Matthew 7:9 ULT)
* **<u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash?</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!** (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)
* Will a virgin forget her jewelry, or a bride her sash? <u>Of course not!</u> Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!
* **Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone?** (Matthew 7:9 ULB)
* Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? <u>None of you would do that!</u>
1. Change the rhetorical question to a statement or exclamation.
* **<u>What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to?</u> It is like a mustard seed...** (Luke 13:18-19 ULT)
* <u>This is what the kingdom of God is like.</u> It is like a mustard seed..."
* **<u>Is this how you insult God's high priest?</u>** (Acts 23:4 ULT)
* <u>You should not insult God's high priest!</u>
* **<u>Why did I not die when I came out from the womb?</u>** (Job 3:11 ULT)
* <u>I wish I had died when I came out from the womb!</u>
* **<u>And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me?</u>** (Luke 1:43 ULT)
* <u>How wonderful it is that the mother of my Lord has come to me!</u>
* **What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to? It is like a mustard seed...** (Luke 13:18-19 ULB)
* This is what the kingdom of God is like. It is like a mustard seed..."
* **Is this how you insult God's high priest?** (Acts 23:4 ULB)
* You have insulted God's high priest!
* **And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me?** (Luke 1:43 ULB)
* How wonderful it is that the mother of my Lord has come to me!
1. Change the rhetorical question to a statement, and then follow it with a short question.
* **<u>Do you not still rule</u> the kingdom of Israel?** (1 Kings 21:7 ULT)
* **<u>Do you not still rule</u> the kingdom of Israel?** (1 Kings 21:7 ULB)
* You still rule the kingdom of Israel, <u>do you not?</u>
1. Change the form of the question so that it communicates in your langauge what the orignal speaker communicated in his.
* **Or <u>what man among you is there who</u>, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, <u>will give him a stone?</u>** (Matthew 7:9 ULT)
* **Or <u>what man among you is there who</u>, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, <u>will give him a stone?</u>** (Matthew 7:9 ULB)
* If your son asks you for a loaf of bread, <u>would you give him a stone</u>?
* **<u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her veils</u>? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!** (Jeremiah 2:32 ULT)
* <u>What virgin would forget her jewelry, and what bride would forget her veils</u>? Yet my poeple have forgotten me for days without number
* **<u>Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash</u>? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!** (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)
* <u>What virgin would forget her jewelry, and what bride would forget her sash</u>? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!

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### Description
The simplest sentence structure in English includes a **subject** and an **action** word:
@ -73,6 +72,6 @@ In the sentence below "her mother, who was very annoyed" is part of the predicat
#### Translation Issues
* Languages have different orders for the parts of a sentence. (See: //add Information Structure page//)
* Languages have different orders for the parts of a sentence.
* Some languages do not have relative clauses, or they use them in a limited way. (see [Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding](../figs-distinguish/01.md))

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@ -9,75 +9,74 @@ A **sentence** is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. The basic
* **Imperative Sentences** - These are mainly used to express a desire or requirement that someone do something. '_Pick that up._'
* **Exclamations** - These are mainly used to express a strong feeling. '_Ouch, that hurt!_'
#### Reasons this is a translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Languages have different ways of using sentence types to express particular functions.
* Most languages use these sentence types for more than one function.
* Each sentence in the Bible belongs to a certain sentence type and has a certain function, but some languages would not use that type of sentence for that function.
#### Examples from the Bible
### Examples from the Bible
The examples below show each of these types used for their main functions.
#### Statements
##### Statements
>In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. (Genesis 1:1 ULT)
>In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. (Genesis 1:1 ULB)
Statements can also have other functions. (see [Statements - Other Uses](../figs-declarative/01.md))
#### Questions
##### Questions
The speakers below used these questions to get information, and the people they were speaking to answered their questions.
<blockquote>Jesus said to them, "<u>Do you believe that I can do this?</u>" They said to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matthew 9:28 ULT) </blockquote>
>Jesus said to them, "<u>Do you believe that I can do this?</u>" They said to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matthew 9:28 ULB)
<blockquote>The jailer...said, "Sirs, <u>what must I do to be saved?</u>" They said, "Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your house." (Acts 16:29-31 ULT)</blockquote>
>The jailer...said, "Sirs, <u>what must I do to be saved?</u>" They said, "Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your house." (Acts 16:29-31 ULB)
Questions can also have other functions. (see [Rhetorical Question](../figs-rquestion/01.md))
#### Imperative Sentences
##### Imperative Sentences
There are different kinds of imperative sentences: commands, instructions, suggestions, invitations, requests, and wishes.
With a **command**, the speaker uses his authority and tells someone to do something.
><u>Rise up</u>, Balak, and <u>hear</u>. <u>Listen</u> to me, you son of Zippor. (Numbers 23:18 ULT)
><u>Rise up</u>, Balak, and <u>hear</u>. <u>Listen</u> to me, you son of Zippor. (Numbers 23:18 ULB)
With an **instruction**, the speaker tells someone how to do something.
>...but if you want to enter into life, <u>keep the commandments</u>. ... If you wish to be perfect, <u>go</u>, <u>sell</u> what you have, and <u>give</u> it to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. (Matthew 19:17, 21 ULT)
>...but if you want to enter into life, <u>keep the commandments</u>. ... If you wish to be perfect, <u>go</u>, <u>sell</u> what you have, and <u>give</u> to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. (Matthew 19:17, 21 ULB)
With a **suggestion**, the speaker tells someone something to do or not do that he thinks might help that person. In the example below, it is best for both blind men if they do not try to lead each other.
>A blind man <u>should not</u> try to lead another blind man. If he did, they both would fall into a hole! ( Luke 6:39 UST)
>A blind man <u>should not</u> try to lead another blind man. If he did, they both would fall into a hole! (Luke 6:39 UDB)
Speakers may intend to be part of the group that does what is suggested. In Genesis 11, the people were saying that it would be good for them all to make bricks together.
>They said to one another, "Come, <u>let us</u> make bricks and bake them thoroughly." (Genesis 11:3 ULT)
>Then they said to each other, "<u>Let us</u> make bricks and bake them to make them hard ... (Genesis 11:3 ULB)
With an **invitation**, the speaker uses politeness or friendliness to suggest that someone do something if he wants. This is usually something that the speaker thinks the listener will enjoy.
><u>Come</u> with us and we will do you good. (Numbers 10:29)
With a **request**, the speaker uses politeness to say that he wants someone to do something. This may include the word 'please' to make it clear that it is a request and not a command. This is usually something that would benefit the speaker.
<blockquote><u>Give us</u> today our daily bread. (Matthew 6:11 ULT) </blockquote>
><u>Give us</u> today our daily bread. (Matthew 6:11 ULB)
<blockquote><u>Please excuse</u> me. (Luke 14:18 ULT)</blockquote>
><u>Please excuse</u> me. (Luke 14:18 ULB)
With a **wish** a person expresses what they want to happen. In English they often start with the word "may" or "let."
In Genesis 28, Isaac told Jacob what he wanted God to do for him.
><u>May God Almighty bless</u> you, make you fruitful and multiply you. (Genesis 28:3 ULT)
><u>May God Almighty bless</u> you, make you fruitful and multiply you ... (Genesis 28:3 ULB)
In Genesis 9, Noah said what he wanted to happen to Canaan.
><u>Cursed be</u> Canaan. <u>May he be</u> a servant to his brothers' servants. (Genesis 9:25 ULT)
><u>Cursed be</u> Canaan. <u>May he be</u> a servant to his brothers' servants. (Genesis 9:25 ULB)
In Genesis 21, Hagar expressed her strong desire not to see her son die, and then she moved away so that she would not see him die.
><u>Let me not look</u> upon the death of the child. (Genesis 21:16 ULT)
><u>Let me not look</u> upon the death of the child. (Genesis 21:16 ULB)
Imperative sentences also have other functions. (see [Imperatives - Other Uses](../figs-imperative/01.md))
#### Exclamations
##### Exclamations
Exclamations express strong feeling. In the ULT and UST, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end.
>Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULT)
Exclamations express strong feeling. In the ULB and UDB, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end.
>Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULB)
(See [Exclamations](../figs-exclamations/01.md) for other ways that exclamations are shown and ways to translate them.)

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A simile is a comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. One is said to be "like" the other. It focuses on a particular trait the two items have in common, and it includes the words "like," "as" or "than."
### Description
A simile is a comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. It focuses on a particular trait the two items have in common, and it includes the words "like," "as" or "than."
>When he saw the crowds, he had compassion for them, because they were worried and confused, because they were <u>like sheep without a shepherd</u>. (Matthew 9:36)
Jesus compared the crowds of people to sheep without a shepherd. Sheep grow frightened when they do not have a good shepherd to lead them in safe places. The crowds were like that because they did not have good religious leaders.
>See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>, so be as wise <u>as serpents</u> and harmless <u>as doves</u>. (Matthew 10:16 ULT)
Jesus compared his disciples to sheep and their enemies to wolves. Wolves attack sheep. Jesus' enemies would attack his disciples.
>For the word of God is living and active and sharper <u>than any two-edged sword</u>. (Hebrews 4:12 ULT)
God's word is compared to a two-edged sword. A two-edged sword is a weapon that can easily cut through a person's flesh. God's word is very effective in showing what is in a person's heart and thoughts.
#### Purposes of Simile
@ -20,19 +8,23 @@ God's word is compared to a two-edged sword. A two-edged sword is a weapon that
* A simile can emphasize a particular trait, sometimes in a way that gets people's attention.
* Similes help form a picture in the mind or help the reader experience what he is reading about more fully.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not know how the two items are similar.
* People may not be familiar with the item that something is compared to.
### Examples from the Bible
>When he saw the crowds, he had compassion for them, because they were troubled and discouraged. They were <u>like sheep without a shepherd</u>. (Matthew 9:36)
>Suffer hardship with me, <u>as a good soldier of Christ Jesus</u>. (2 Timothy 2:3 ULT)
Jesus compared the crowds of people to sheep without a shepherd. Sheep grow frightened when they do not have a good shepherd to lead them in safe places. The crowds were like that because they did not have good religious leaders.
In this simile, Paul compares suffering with what soldiers endure, and he encourages Timothy to follow their example.
>for <u>as the lightning appears when it flashes from one part of the sky to another part of the sky</u>, so will the Son of Man be in his day. (Luke 17:24 ULT)
>See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>, so be as wise <u>as serpents</u> and harmless <u>as doves</u>. (Matthew 10:16 ULB)
This verse does not tell how the Son of Man will be like the lightning. But from the context we can understand from the verses before it that just as lighting flashes suddenly and everyone can see it, the Son of Man will come suddenly and everyone will be able to see him. No one will have to be told about it.
Jesus compared his disciples to sheep and their enemies to wolves. Wolves attack sheep. Jesus' enemies would attack his disciples.
>For the word of God is living and active and sharper <u>than any two-edged sword</u>. (Hebrews 4:12 ULB)
God's word is compared to a two-edged sword. A two-edged sword is a weapon that can easily cut through a person's flesh. God's word is very effective in showing what is in a person's heart and thoughts.
### Translation Strategies
@ -45,29 +37,22 @@ If people would understand the correct meaning of a simile, consider using it. I
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If people do not know how the two items are alike, tell how they are alike. However, do not do this if the meaning was not clear to the original audience.
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>** (Matthew 10:16 ULT) - This compares the danger that Jesus' disciples would be in with the danger that sheep are in when they are surrounded by wolves.
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>** (Matthew 10:16 ULB) - This compares the danger that Jesus' disciples would be in with the danger that sheep are in when they are surrounded by wolves.
* See, I send <u>you out among wicked people</u> and you will be in danger from them <u>as sheep are in danger when they are among wolves</u>.
* **For the word of God is living and active and sharper <u>than any two-edged sword</u>.** (Hebrews 4:12 ULT)
* **For the word of God is living and active and sharper <u>than any two-edged sword</u>.** (Hebrews 4:12 ULB)
* For the word of God is living and active and <u>more powerful than a very sharp two-edged sword</u>
1. If people are not familiar with the item that something is compared to, use an item from your own culture. Be sure that it is one that could have been used in the cultures of the Bible.
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>,** (Matthew 10:16 ULT) - If people do not know what sheep and wolves are, or that wolves kill and eat sheep, you could use some other animal that kills another.
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>,** (Matthew 10:16 ULB) - If people do not know what sheep and wolves are, or that wolves kill and eat sheep, you could use some other animal that kills another.
* See, I send you out <u>as chickens in the midst of wild dogs</u>,
* **How often did I long to gather your children together, just <u>as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings</u>, but you did not agree!** (Matthew 23:37 ULT)
* **How often did I long to gather your children together, just <u>as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings</u>, but you were not willing!** (Matthew 23:37 ULB)
* How often I wanted to gather your children together, <u>as a mother closely watches over her infants</u>, but you refused!
* **If you have faith even as small <u>as a grain of mustard</u>,** (Matthew 17:20)
* If you have faith even as small <u>as a tiny seed</u>,
* **If you have faith even as small <u>as a grain of mustard seed</u> ...** (Matthew 17:20)
* If you have faith even as small <u>as a tiny seed</u> ...
1. Simply describe the item without comparing it to another.
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>,** (Matthew 10:16 ULT)
* **See, I send you out <u>as sheep in the midst of wolves</u>,** (Matthew 10:16 ULB)
* See, I send you out and <u>people will want to harm you</u>.
* **How often did I long to gather your children together, just <u>as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings</u>, but you did not agree!** (Matthew 23:37 ULT)
* **How often did I long to gather your children together, just <u>as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings</u>, but you were not willing!** (Matthew 23:37 ULB)
* How often I wanted to <u>protect you</u>, but you refused!

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### Description
Synecdoche is when a speaker uses a part of something to refer to the whole or uses the whole to refer to a part.
> <u>My soul</u> exalts the Lord. (Luke 1:46 ULT)
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a speaker uses a part of something to refer to the whole or uses the whole to refer to a part.
Mary was was very happy about what the Lord was doing, so she said "my soul," which means the inner, emotional part of herself, to refer to her whole self.
><u>the Pharisees</u> said to him, "Look, why are they doing something that is not lawful ...?" (Mark 2:24 ULT)
The Pharisees who were standing there did not all say the same words at the same time. Instead, it is more likely that one man representing the group said those words.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Some readers may understand the words literally.
* Some readers may realize that they are not to understand the words literally, but they may not know what the meaning is.
### Example from the Bible
### Examples from the Bible
>I looked on all the deeds that <u>my hands</u> had accomplished (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULT)
><u>My soul</u> praises the Lord. (Luke 1:46 ULB)
Mary was was very happy about what the Lord was doing, so she said "my soul," which means the inner, emotional part of herself, to refer to her whole self.
><u>The Pharisees</u> said to him, "Look, why are they doing something that is not lawful on the Sabbath day?" (Mark 2:24 ULB)
The Pharisees who were standing there did not all say the same words at the same time. Instead, it is more likely that one man representing the group said those words.
>I looked on all the deeds that <u>my hands</u> had accomplished (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULB)
"My hands" is a synecdoche for the whole person, because clearly the arms and the rest of the body and the mind were also involved in the person's accomplishments.
@ -30,13 +30,10 @@ If the synecdoche would be natural and give the right meaning in your language,
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. State specifically what the synecdoche refers to.
* **"<u>My soul</u> exalts the Lord."** (Luke 1:46 ULT)
* "<u>I</u> exalt the Lord."
* **...<u>the Pharisees</u> said to him** (Mark 2:24 ULT)
* **<u>My soul</u> praises the Lord.** (Luke 1:46 ULB)
* <u>I</u> praise the Lord.
* **... <u>the Pharisees</u> said to him** (Mark 2:24 ULB)
* ... <u>a representative of the Pharisees</u> said to him ...
* **... I looked on all the deeds that <u>my hands</u> had accomplished ...** (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULT)
* **... I looked on all the deeds that <u>my hands</u> had accomplished ...** (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULB)
* I looked on all the deeds that <u>I</u> had accomplished

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Some languages have more than one word for "you" based on how many people the word "you" refers to. The **singular** form refers to one person, and the **plural** form refers to more than one person. Some languages also have a **dual** form which refers to two people, and some have other forms that refer to three or four people.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_younum.
* [Forms of 'You' - Singular](../figs-yousingular/01.md)
* [Forms of 'You' - Dual/Plural](../figs-youdual/01.md)
Sometimes in the Bible a speaker uses a singular form of "you" even though he is speaking to a crowd.
@ -14,8 +14,6 @@ Sometimes in the Bible a speaker uses a singular form of "you" even though he is
Some languages have more than one form of "you" based on the relationship between the speaker and the person he is talking to. People use the **formal** form of "you" when speaking to someone who is older, or has higher authority, or is someone they do not know very well. People use the **informal** form when speaking to someone who is not older, or does not have higher authority, or is a family member or close friend.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_youform.
For help with translating these, we suggest you read:
* [Forms of "You" - Formal or Informal](../figs-youformal/01.md)

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@ -6,18 +6,18 @@ The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. These languages have a **sin
Also, speakers and writers of the Old Testament often referred to groups of people with the singular pronoun "he," rather than with the plural pronoun "they."
### Reason this is a Translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* For many languages, a translator who reads a Bible with a general form of "you" will need to know whether the speaker was speaking to one person or to more than one.
* People who translate into a language that has singular and plural forms of "you" will need to know whether the speaker was speaking to one person or to more than one.
* In some languages it might be confusing if a speaker uses a singular pronoun when speaking to or about more than one person.
### Examples from the Bible
><sup>1</sup>Take heed that <u>you</u> do not do <u>your</u> acts of righteousness before people to be seen by them, or else <u>you</u> will have no reward from <u>your</u> Father who is in heaven. <sup>2</sup>So when <u>you</u> give alms, do not sound a trumpet before <u>yourself</u> as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may have the praise of people. Truly I say to <u>you</u>, they have received their reward. (Matthew 6:1,2 ULT)
><sup>1</sup>Take heed that <u>you</u> do not do <u>your</u> acts of righteousness before people to be seen by them, or else <u>you</u> will have no reward from <u>your</u> Father who is in heaven. <sup>2</sup>So when <u>you</u> give alms, do not sound a trumpet before <u>yourself</u> as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may have the praise of people. Truly I say to <u>you</u>, they have received their reward. (Matthew 6:1, 2 ULB)
Jesus said this to a crowd. He used "you" plural in verse 1, and "you" singular in the first sentence of verse 2. Then in the last sentence he used the plural again.
>God spoke all these words: "I am Yahweh, <u>your</u> God, who brought <u>you</u> out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. <u>You</u> must have no other gods before me." (Exodus 20:1-3 ULT)
>I am Yahweh <u>your</u> God, who brought <u>you</u> out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. <u>You</u> must have no other gods before me. (Exodus 20:1-3 ULB)
God said this to all the people of Israel. He had taken them all out of Egypt and he wanted them all to obey him, but he used the singular form of you here when speaking to them.
@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ God said this to all the people of Israel. He had taken them all out of Egypt an
>because <u>he</u> pursued <u>his</u> brother with the sword
>and cast off all pity.
><u>His</u> anger raged continually,
>and <u>his</u> wrath lasted forever." (Amos 1:11 ULT)
>and <u>his</u> wrath lasted forever." (Amos 1:11 ULB)
Yahweh said these things about the nation of Edom, not about only one person.
@ -36,29 +36,10 @@ Yahweh said these things about the nation of Edom, not about only one person.
If the singular form of the pronoun would be natural when referring to a group of people, consider using it.
* Whether you can use it may depend on who the speaker is and who the people are that he is talking about or talking to.
* It may also depend on what the speaker is saying.
1. If the singular form of the pronoun would not be natural when referring to a group of people, or if the readers would be confused by it, use the plural form of the pronoun.
### Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the singular form of the pronoun would not be natural when referring to a group of people, or if the readers would be confused by it, use the plural form of the pronoun.
>This is what Yahweh says,
>"For three sins of Edom,
>even for four,
>I will not turn away punishment,
>because <u>he</u> pursued <u>his</u> brother with the sword
>and cast off all pity.
><u>His</u> anger raged continually,
>and <u>his</u> wrath lasted forever." (Amos 1:11 ULT)
This is what Yahweh says,
"For three sins of Edom,
even for four,
I will not turn away punishment,
because <u>they</u> pursued <u>their brothers</u> with the sword
and cast off all pity.
<u>Their</u> anger raged continually,
and <u>their</u> wrath lasted forever."
* **This is what Yahweh says, "For three sins of Edom, even for four, I will not turn away punishment, because <u>he</u> pursued <u>his</u> brother with the sword and cast off all pity. <u>His</u> anger raged continually, and <u>his</u> wrath lasted forever."** (Amos 1:11 ULB)
* This is what Yahweh says, "For three sins of Edom, even for four, I will not turn away punishment, because <u>they</u> pursued <u>their brothers</u> with the sword and cast off all pity. <u>Their</u> anger raged continually, and <u>their</u> wrath lasted forever."

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The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. These languages all have a singular form of "you" and a plural form of "you." When we read the Bible in those languages, the pronouns and verb forms show us whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person. However, they do not show us whether it refers to only two people or more than two people. When the pronouns do not show us how many people the word "you" refers to, we need to look at the context to see how many people the speaker was speaking to.
#### Reasons this is a Translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Translators who speak a language that has distinct singular, dual, and plural forms of "you" will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language.
* Many languages also have different forms of the verb depending on whether the subject is singular or plural. So even if there is no pronoun meaning "you," translators of these languages will need to know if the speaker was referring to one person or more than one.
@ -15,23 +15,25 @@ Often the context will make it clear whether the word "you" refers to one person
### Examples from the Bible
><u>James and John</u>, the sons of Zebedee, came up to him and said, "Teacher, we want you to do for us whatever we ask you." He [Jesus] said to them, "What do <u>you </u> want me to do for <u>you</u>?" (Mark 10:35-36 ULT)
><u>James and John</u>, the sons of Zebedee, came up to him and said, "Teacher, we want you to do for us whatever we ask you." He said to them, "What do <u>you</u> want me to do for <u>you</u>?" (Mark 10:35-36 ULB)
Jesus is asking the **two**, James and John, what they want him to do for them. If the target language has a **dual** form of "you," use that. If the target language does not have a dual form, then the plural form would be appropriate.
>… and Jesus sent out two of his disciples and said to them, "Go into the village opposite us. As soon as <u>you</u> enter it, <u>you</u> will find a colt that has never been ridden. Untie it and bring it to me. (Mark 11:1-2 ULT)
>... Jesus sent out <u>two of his disciples</u> and said to them, "<u>Go</u> into the village opposite us. As soon as <u>you enter</u> it, <u>you will find</u> a colt that has never been ridden. <u>Untie</u> it and <u>bring</u> it to me. (Mark 11:1-2 ULB)
The context makes it clear that Jesus is addressing **two** people. If the target language has a **dual** form of "you," use that. If the target language does not have a dual form, then the plural form would be appropriate.
The context makes it clear that Jesus is addressing **two** people. If the target language has a **dual** form of "you," use that, and if it has a dual form of verbs, use that as well. If the target language does not have a dual form, then the plural form would be appropriate.
>James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes of the Dispersion, greetings. Consider it all joy, my brothers, when <u>you</u> experience various troubles, knowing that the testing of <u>your</u> faith works endurance. (James 1:1-3 ULT)
>James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes of the Dispersion, greetings. Consider it all joy, my brothers, when <u>you</u> experience various troubles, knowing that the testing of <u>your</u> faith works endurance. (James 1:1-3 ULB)
James wrote this letter to many people, so the word "you" refers to many people. If the target language has a **plural** form of "you," it would be best to use it here.
>Jesus answered and said to him, "Are <u>you</u> a teacher of Israel, and yet <u>you</u> do not understand these things? Truly, truly, I say to <u>you</u>, we speak what we know, and we testify about what we have seen. Yet <u>you</u> do not accept our testimony. (John 3:10, 11 ULB)
Jesus was speaking to one man, so the reader would expect that all the instances of "you" would be singular. However, in the last sentence, Jesus is referring to all of the Pharisees, so the word "you" in that sentence is **plural**.
### Strategies for finding out how many people "you" refers to
1. Look at the notes to see if they tell whether "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. Look at the UST to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. Look at the UDB to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. If you have a Bible that is written in a language that distinguishes "you" singular from "you" plural, see which form of "you" that Bible has in that sentence.
1. Look at the context to see who the speaker was talking to and who responded.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_youdual.

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(You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_youform.)
### Description
Some languages make a distinction between the formal form of "you" and the informal form of "you." This page is primarily for people whose language makes this distinction.
In some cultures people use the formal "you" when speaking to someone who is older or in authority, and they use the informal "you" when speaking to someone who is their own age or younger or who has less authority. In other cultures, people use the formal "you" when speaking to strangers or people they do not know well, and the informal "you" when speaking with family members and close friends.
#### Reasons this is a Translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. These languages do not have formal and informal forms of "you."
* English and many other source languages do not have formal and informal forms of "you."
* Translators who use a source text in a language that does have formal and informal forms of "you" will need to understand how those forms are used in that language. The rules in that language may not be exactly the same as the rules in the translator's language.
* Translators will need to understand the relationship between two speakers in order to choose the appropriate form in their language.
#### Translation Principles
### Translation principles
* Understand the relationship between a speaker and the person or people he is speaking to.
* Understand the relationship between the speaker and the person or people he is speaking to.
* Is one person in authority over the other?
* Is one person older than the other?
* Are the people family members, relatives, friends, strangers, or enemies?
* Understand the speaker's attitude toward the person he is speaking to.
* Choose the form in your language that is appropriate for that relationship and attitude.
### Examples from the Bible
>Yahweh God called to the man and said to him, "Where are <u>you</u>?" (Genesis 3:9 ULT)
>Yahweh God called to the man and said to him, "Where are <u>you</u>?" (Genesis 3:9 ULB)
God is in authority over the man, so languages that have formal and informal forms of "you" would probably use the informal form here.
>So, it seemed good to me also, having investigated everything accurately from the beginning, to write it down for <u>you</u> in order, most excellent Theophilus. I want <u>you</u> to know the certainty of the things that <u>you </u> were taught. (Luke 1:3-4 ULT)
>So it seemed good to me also, because I have accurately investigated everything from the beginning, to write an orderly account for <u>you</u>, most excellent Theophilus, so that <u>you</u> might know the certainty of the things <u>you</u> have been taught. (Luke 1:3-4 ULB)
Luke called Theophilus "most excellent." This shows us that Theophilus was probably a high official to whom Luke was showing great respect. Speakers of languages that have a formal form of "you" would probably use that form here.
>Heavenly Father, sanctify <u>your</u> name. (Matthew 6:9 ULT)
>Our Father in heaven, may <u>your</u> name be honored as holy. (Matthew 6:9 ULB)
This is part of a prayer that Jesus taught his disciples. Some cultures would use the formal "you" because God is in authority. Other cultures would use the informal "you" because God is our Father.
### Translation Strategies
Translators whose language has formal and informal forms of "you" will need to understand the relationship between two speakers in order to choose the appropriate form of "you" in their language.
#### Deciding whether to use the Formal or Informal "You"
1. Pay attention to the relationships between the speakers.
* Is one speaker in authority over the other?
* Is one speaker older than the other?
* Are the speakers family members, relatives, friends, strangers, or enemies?
1. If you have a Bible in a language that has formal and informal forms of "you," see what forms it uses. Remember, though, that the rules in that language might be different than the rules in your language.
### Translation Strategies Applied
English does not have formal and informal forms of "you", so we cannot show in English how to translate using formal and informal forms of "you." Please see the examples and discussion above.

20
translate/figs-yousingular/01.md
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@ -6,32 +6,30 @@ Some languages have a **singular** form of "you" for when the word "you" refers
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. These languages all have both a singular form of "you" and a plural form of "you." When we read the Bible in those languages, the pronouns and verb forms show us whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one. When we read the Bible in a language that does not have different forms of you, we need to look at the context to see how many people the speaker was speaking to.
#### Reason this is a Translation Issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Translators who speak a language that has distinct singular and plural forms of "you" will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language.
* Many languages also have different forms of the verb depending on whether the subject is singular or plural. So even if there is no pronoun meaning "you", translators of these languages will need to know if the speaker was referring to one person or more than one.
Often the context will make it clear whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one. If you look at the other pronouns in the sentence, they will help you know the number of people the speaker was speaking to.
Sometimes Greek and Hebrew speakers used "you" singular even though they were speaking to a group of people. See [Forms of 'You' - Singular to a Crowd](../figs-youcrowd/01.md)
Sometimes Greek and Hebrew speakers used "you" singular even though they were speaking to a group of people. See [Singular Pronouns that Refer to Groups](../figs-youcrowd/01.md)
### Examples from the Bible
>The ruler said, "All these things I have obeyed from the time I was a youth." When Jesus heard that, he said to him, "One thing <u>you</u> still lack. <u>You</u> must sell all that you have and distribute it to the poor, and <u>you</u> will have treasure in heaven—and come, follow me." (Luke 18:21, 22 ULT)
>Jesus answered and said to him, "Are <u>you</u> a teacher of Israel, and yet <u>you</u> do not understand these things? Truly, truly, I say to <u>you</u>, we speak what we know, and we testify about what we have seen. Yet <u>you</u> do not accept our testimony. (John 3:10, 11 ULB)
The ruler was speaking about just himself when he said "I." This shows us that when Jesus said "you" he was referring only to the ruler. So languages that have singular and plural forms of "you" would have the singular form here.
>The angel said to him, "Dress <u>yourself</u> and put on <u>your</u> sandals." Peter did so. The angel said to him, "Put on <u>your</u> outer garment and follow me." So Peter followed the angel and went out. (Acts 12:8, ULT)
Jesus was speaking to one man, so the reader would expect that all the instances of "you" would be singular. However, in the last sentence, Jesus is referring to all of the Pharisees, so the word "you" in that sentence is plural.
The context makes it clear that the angel was speaking to one person and that only one person did what the the angel commanded. So languages that have singular and plural forms of "you" would have the singular form here for "yourself" and "your". Also, if verbs have different forms for singular and plural subjects, the verbs "dress" and "put on" will need the form for "you" singular.
>To Titus, a true son in our common faith. ... For this purpose I left <u>you</u> in Crete, that <u>you</u> might set in order things not yet complete, and ordain elders in every city as I directed <u>you</u>. … But <u>you</u>, say what agrees with healthy doctrine. (Titus 1:4,5; 2:1 ULT)
>The angel said to him, "Dress <u>yourself</u> and put on <u>your</u> sandals." Peter did so. The angel said to him, "Put on <u>your</u> outer garment and follow me." (Acts 12:8 ULB)
The context makes it clear that the angel was speaking to one person and that only one person did what the the angel commanded. So languages that have singular and plural forms of "you" would have the singular form here for "yourself" and "your." Also, if verbs have different forms for singular and plural subjects, the verbs "dress" and "put on" will need the form for "you" singular.
>To Titus, a true son in our common faith. ... For this purpose I left <u>you</u> in Crete, that <u>you</u> might set in order things not yet complete and ordain elders in every city as I directed <u>you</u>. ... But <u>you</u>, speak what fits with faithful instruction. (Titus 1:4,5; 2:1 ULB)
Paul wrote this letter to one person, Titus. Most of the time the word "you" in this letter refers only to Titus.
#### Strategies for finding out how many people "you" refers to
1. Look at the notes to see if they tell whether "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. Look at the UST to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. Look at the UDB to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
1. If you have a Bible that is written in a language that distinguishes "you" singular from "you" plural, see which form of "you" that Bible has in that sentence.
1. Look at the context to see how many people the speaker was talking to and who responded.
You may also want to watch the video at http://ufw.io/figs_younum.

4
translate/toc.yaml
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@ -2,7 +2,7 @@ title: "Table of Contents"
sections:
- title: "Introduction"
sections:
- title: "Introduction to the Translation Manual"
- title: "Introduction"
link: translate-manual
- title: "Terms to Know"
link: translate-terms
@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ sections:
link: resources-words
- title: "Using translationQuestions"
link: resources-questions
- title: "Just-in-Time Learning Modules"
- title: "Learning Topics"
sections:
- title: "Figures of Speech"
sections:

39
translate/translate-bdistance/01.md
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@ -9,7 +9,7 @@ The following terms are the most common measures for distance or length that wer
* The **"long" cubit** is used only in Ezekiel 40-48. It is the length of a normal cubit plus a span.
* The **stadium** (plural, **stadia**) referred to a certain footrace that was about 185 meters in length. Some older English versions translated this word as "furlong", which referred to the average length of a plowed field.
The metric values in the table below are close but not exactly equal to the biblical measures. The biblical measures probably differed in exact length from time to time and place to place. The equivalents below are an attempt to give an average measurement.
The biblical measures probably differed in exact length from time to time and place to place. So the metric values in the table below are close but not exactly equal to the biblical measures.
| Original Measure | Metric Measure |
| -------- | -------- |
@ -19,8 +19,7 @@ The metric values in the table below are close but not exactly equal to the bibl
| "long" cubit | 54 centimeters |
| stadia | 185 meters |
#### Translation Principles
### Translation principles
1. The people in the Bible did not use modern measures such as meters, liters, and kilograms. Using the original measures can help readers know that the Bible really was written long ago in a time when people used those measures.
1. Using modern measures can help readers understand the text more easily.
@ -31,37 +30,33 @@ The metric values in the table below are close but not exactly equal to the bibl
### Translation Strategies
1. Use the measurements from the ULT. These are the same kinds of measurements that the original writers used. Spell them in a way that is similar to the way they sound or are spelled in the ULT. (see [Copy or Borrow Words](../translate-transliterate/01.md))
1. Use the metric measurements given in the UST. The translators of the UST have already figured how to represent the amounts in the metric system.
1. Use the measurements from the ULB. These are the same kinds of measurements that the original writers used. Spell them in a way that is similar to the way they sound or are spelled in the ULB. (see [Borrow Words](../translate-transliterate/01.md))
1. Use the metric measurements given in the UDB. The translators of the UDB have already figured how to represent the amounts in the metric system.
1. Use measurements that are already used in your language. In order to do this you would need to know how your measurements relate to the metric system and figure out each measurement.
1. Use the measurements from the ULT and include measurements that your people know in the text or a note.
1. Use measurements that your people know, and include the measurements from the ULT in the text or in a note.
1. Use the measurements from the ULB and include measurements that your people know in the text or a note.
1. Use measurements that your people know, and include the measurements from the ULB in the text or in a note.
### Translation Strategies Applied
The strategies are all applied to Exodus 25:10 below.
* **They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be two and a half cubits; its width will be one cubit and a half; and its height will be one cubit and a half.** (Exodus 25:10 ULT)
1. Use the measurements given in the ULT. These are the same kinds of measurements that the original writers used. Spell them in a way that is similar to the way they sound or are spelled in the ULT. (see [Copy or Borrow Words](../translate-transliterate/01.md))
* **They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be two and a half cubits; its width will be one cubit and a half; and its height will be one cubit and a half.** (Exodus 25:10 ULB)
1. Use the measurements given in the ULB. These are the same kinds of measurements that the original writers used. Spell them in a way that is similar to the way they sound or are spelled in the ULB. (see [Borrow Words](../translate-transliterate/01.md))
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>two and a half kubits</u>; its width will be <u>one kubit and a half</u>; and its height will be <u>one kubit and a half</u>."
1. Use the metric measurements given in the UST. The translators of the UST have already figured how to represent the amounts in the metric system.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>one meter</u>; its width will be <u>two thirds of a meter</u>; and its height will be <u>two thirds of a meter</u>."
1. Use the metric measurements given in the UDB. The translators of the UDB have already figured how to represent the amounts in the metric system.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>one hundred and fifteen centimeters</u>; its width will be <u>sixty-nine centimeters</u>; and its height will be <u>sixty-nine centimeters</u>."
1. Use measurements that are already used in your language. In order to do this you would need to know how your measurements relate to the metric system and figure out each measurement. For example, if you measure things using the standard foot length, you could translate it as below.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be<u> 3 3/4 feet</u>; its width will be <u>2 1/4 feet</u>; and its height will be <u>2 1/4 feet</u>."
1. Use the measurements from the ULT and include measurements that your people know in the text or a note. The following shows both measurements in the text.
1. Use the measurements from the ULB and include measurements that your people know in the text or a note. The following shows both measurements in the text.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>two and a half cubits (one hundred and fifteen centimeters)</u>; its width will be <u>one cubit and a half (sixty-nine centimeters)</u>; and its height will be <u>one cubit and a half (sixty-nine centimeters)</u>."
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>two and a half cubits (one meter)</u>; its width will be <u>one cubit and a half (two thirds of a meter)</u>; and its height will be <u>one cubit and a half (two thirds of a meter)</u>."
1. Use measurements that your people know, and include the measurements from the ULT in the text or in a note. The following shows the ULT measurements in notes.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>one meter</u><sup>1</sup>; its width will be <u>two thirds of a meter</u> <sup>2</sup>; and its height will be <u>two thirds of a meter</u>." The footnotes would look like:
* <sup>[1]</sup> two and a half cubits
* <sup>[2]</sup> one cubit and a half
1. Use measurements that your people know, and include the measurements from the ULB in the text or in a note. The following shows the ULB measurements in notes.
* "They are to make an ark of acacia wood. Its length must be <u>one hundred and fifteen centimeters</u><sup>[1]</sup>; its width will be <u>sixty-nine centimeters</u> <sup>[2]</sup>; and its height will be <u>sixty-nine centimeters</u>."
* The footnotes would look like:
<sup>[1]</sup>two and a half cubits
<sup>[2]</sup>one cubit and a half

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