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### Description
Parts of speech are categories of words. The different categories of words have different functions in a sentence. All languages have parts of speech, and all words in a language belong to a part of speech. Most languages have these basic parts of speech, with some variations, and some languages have more categories than this. This is not an exhaustive list of parts of speech, but it covers the basic categories.
**VERBS** are words that express either an action (such as come, go, eat) or a state-of-being (such as is, are, was). More detailed information can be found on [Verbs](../figs-verbs/01.md).
**NOUNS** are words that represent a person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are generic, that is, they do not refer to any specific entity (man, city, country). Names, or proper nouns, refer to a specific entity (Peter, Jerusalem, Egypt). (For more information see) [How to Translate Names](../translate-names/01.md).
**PRONOUNS** take the place of nouns and include such words as he, she, it, you, they, and we. More detailed pages on pronouns can be found on [Pronouns](../figs-pronouns/01.md).
**CONJUNCTIONS** are words that join phrases or sentences. Examples include and, or, but, for, yet, nor. Some conjunctions are used in pairs: both/and; either/or; neither/nor; not only/but also. More information about these can be found on [Connecting Words](../writing-connectingwords/01.md)
**PREPOSITIONS** are words that begin phrases which connect a noun or verb with more detail about that noun or verb. For example, "The girl ran <u>to her father</u>." Here the phrase with the preposition "to" tells the direction of the girl's running (the action) in relation to her father. Another example is, "The crowd <u>around Jesus</u> grew in numbers." The phrase with the preposition <u>around</u> tells the location of the crowd in relation to Jesus. Some examples of prepositions are to, from, in, out, on, off, with, without, above, below, before, after, behind, in front of, among, through, beyond, among.
**ARTICLES** are words that are used with nouns to show whether or not the speaker is referring to something that his listener should be able to identify. In English these words are: "a", an, the. The words <u>a</u> and <u>an</u> mean the same thing. If a speaker says "<u>a dog,</u> he does not expect his listener to know which dog he is talking about; this might be the first time he says anything about a dog. If a speaker says <u>the</u> dog, he is usually referring to a specific dog, and he expects his listener to know which dog he is talking about. English speakers also use <u>the</u> to show that they are talking about something in general. For example, they can say "<u>The</u> elephant is a large animal" and refer to elephants in general, not a specific elephant. More information about this can be found on [Generic Noun Phrases](../figs-genericnoun/01.md).
**ADJECTIVES** are words that describe nouns and express such things as quantity, size, color, and age. Some examples are: many, big, blue, old, smart, tired. Sometimes people use adjectives to give some information about something, and sometimes people use them to distinguish one item from another. For example, in <u>my elderly father</u> the adjective <u>elderly</u> simply tells something about my father. But in <u>my eldest sister</u> the word <u>eldest</u> distinguishes that sister from any other older sisters I might have. More information about this can be found on [Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding](../figs-distinguish/01.md).
**ADVERBS** are words that describe verbs or adjectives and give details such as how, when, where, why, and to what extent. Many English adverbs end in <u>ly</u>. Some examples of adverbs: slowly, later, far, intentionally, very.

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What are some of the parts of speech in English?

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Parts of Speech

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### Description
In common English, "possession" refers to having something, or to something that a person has. In English that grammatical relationship is shown with <u>of</u>, or an apostrophe and the letter <u>s</u>, or a possessive pronoun.
* the house <u>of</u> my grandfather
* my grandfather<u>'s</u> house
* <u>his</u> house
Possession is used in Hebrew, Greek, and English for a variety of situations. Here are a few common situations that it is used for.
* Ownership - Someone owns something.
* My clothes - The clothes that I own
* Social relationship - Someone has some kind of social relationship with another.
* my mother - the woman who gave birth to me, or the woman who cared for me
* my teacher - the person who teaches me
* Contents - Something has something in it.
* a bag of potatoes - a bag that has potatoes in it, or a bag that is full of potatoes
* Part and whole: One thing is part of another.
* my head - the head that is part of my body
* the roof of a house - the roof that is part of a house
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Translators need to understand the relationship between two ideas represented by the two nouns when one possesses the other.
* Some languages do not use possession for all of the situations that your source text Bible might use it for.
### Examples from the Bible
#### Possession with objects or people
##### Ownership
>... the younger son ... wasted <u>his money</u> with wildly extravagant living. (Luke 15:13)
In the example above, the son owned the money.
##### Social relationship
>Then <u>the disciples of John</u> came to him. (Matthew 9:14 ULB)
In the example above, the disciples were people who learned from John.
##### Material
>On their heads were something like <u>crowns of gold</u> (Revelation 9:7)
In the example above, the crowns were made of gold. Gold was the material used for making the crowns.
##### Contents
>Whoever gives you <u>a cup of water</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward. (Mark 9:41 ULB)
In the example above, the cup has water in it.
##### Part of a whole
>But Uriah slept at <u>the door of the king's palace</u> (2 Samuel 11:9 ULB)
In the example above, the door was a part of the palace.
##### Part of a group
>To <u>each one of us</u> has been given a gift (Ephesians 4:7 ULB)
In the example above, "us" refers to the whole group, and "each one" refers to the individual members.
#### Possession with Events
Sometimes one or both of the nouns is an abstract noun that refers to an event or action. In the examples below, the abstract nouns are in **bold** print. These are just some of the relationships that are possible between two nouns when one of them refers to an event.
**Subject** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who would do the action named by the first noun.
>The <u>**baptism** of John</u>, was it from heaven or from men? Answer me." (Mark 11:30)
In the example above, <u>John baptized people</u>.
>Who will separate us from <u>the **love** of Christ</u>? (Romans 3:35)
In the example below, <u>Christ loves us</u>.
**Object** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who or what something would happen to.
>For <u>the **love** of money</u> is a root of all kinds of evil. (1 Timothy 6:10 ULB)
In the example above, <u>people love money</u>.
**Instrument** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells the instrument that would be used to do something.
>then be afraid of the sword, because wrath brings <u>the **punishment** of the sword</u> (Job 19:29 ULB)
In the example above, God would <u>punish people by sending enemies to attack them with swords</u>.
**Representation** - Sometimes the word after "of" tells what the idea before "of" represents.
>As John came, he was baptizing in the wilderness and was preaching <u>a **baptism** of repentance</u> for the forgiveness of sins. (Mark 1:4 ULB)
In the example above, John was teaching people that they should be baptised to show that they were repenting of their sins. Their <u>baptism represented their repentance</u>.
### Strategies for learning what the relationship is between the two nouns
1. Read the surrounding verses to see if they help you to understand the relationship between the two nouns.
1. Read the verse in the UDB. Sometimes it shows the relationship clearly.
1. See what the notes say about it.
### Translation Strategies
If possession would be a natural way to show a particular relationship between two nouns, consider using it. If it would be strange or hard to understand, consider these.
1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other.
1. Use a verb to show how the two are related.
1. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other. The adjective below is in **bold** print.
* **On their heads were something like <u>crowns of gold</u>** (Revelation 9:7)
* On their heads were <u>**gold** crowns</u>
1. Use a verb to show how the two are related. In the example below, the added verb is in bold.
* **... Whoever gives you <u>a cup of water</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward.** (Mark 9:41 ULB)
* ... Whoever gives you <u>a cup that **has** water in it</u> to drink ... will not lose his reward.
* **Wealth is worthless on <u>the day of wrath</u>** (Proverbs 11:4 ULB)
* Wealth is worthless on <u>the day when God **shows** his wrath</u>.
* Wealth is worthless on the <u>day when God **punishes** people because of his wrath</u>.
1. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb. In the examples below, that verb is in bold.
* **Notice that I am not speaking to your children, who have not known or seen <u>the punishment of Yahweh your God</u>,** (Deuteronomy 11:2 ULB)
* Notice that I am not speaking to your children who have not known or seen <u>how Yahweh your God **punished** the people of Egypt.</u>
* **You will only observe and see the <u>punishment of the wicked</u>.** (Psalm 91:8 ULB)
* You will only observe and see <u>how Yahweh **punishes** the wicked</u>.
* **... you will receive the gift <u>of the Holy Spirit</u>.** (Acts 2:38 ULB)
* ... you will receive <u>the Holy Spirit, whom God will **give** to you</u>.

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What is possession and how can I translate phrases that have it?

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Possession

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### Description
Verbs are words that refer to an action or event or that is used in describing or identifying things.
**Examples** The verbs in the examples below are underlined.
* John <u>ran</u>. ("Run" is an action.)
* John <u>ate</u> a banana. ("Eat" is an action.)
* John <u>saw</u> Mark. ("See" is an event.)
* John <u>died.</u> ("Die" is an event.)
* John <u>is</u> tall. (The phrase "is tall" describes John. The word "is" is a verb that links "John" with "tall.")
* John <u>looks</u> handsome. (The phrase "is handsome" describes John. The word "looks" here is a verb that links "John" with "handsome.")
* John <u>is</u> my brother. (The phrase "is my brother" identifies John.)
### People or Things Associated with a Verb
A verb usually says something about someone or something. All of the example sentences above say something about John. "John" is the **subject** of those sentences. In English the subject usually comes before the verb.
Sometimes there is another person or thing associated with the verb. In the examples below, the underlined word is the verb, and the phrase in bold print is the **object**. In English the object usually comes after the verb.
* He <u>ate</u> **lunch**.
* He <u>sang</u> **a song**.
* He <u>read</u> **a book**.
* He <u>saw</u> **the book**.
Some verbs never have an object.
* The sun <u>rose</u> at six o'clock.
* John <u>slept</u> well.
* John <u>fell</u> yesterday.
For many verbs in English, it is alright to leave out the object when the object is not important in the sentence.
* He never <u>eats</u> at night.
* He <u>sings</u> all the time.
* He <u>reads</u> well.
* He cannot <u>see</u>.
In some languages, a verb that needs an object must always take one, even if the object is not very important. People who speak those languages might say the sentences above like this.
* He never <u>eats</u> **food** at night.
* He <u>sings</u> **songs** all the time.
* He <u>reads</u> **words** well.
* He cannot <u>see</u> **anything**.
### Subject and Object Marking on Verbs
In some languages, the verb may be a little bit different depending on the persons or things associated with it. For example, English speakers sometimes put "s" at the end of the verb when the subject is just one person. In other languages marking on the verb may show whether the subject is "I," "you," or "he"; singular, dual, or plural; male or female, or human or non-human.
* They __eat__ bananas every day. (The subject "they" is more than one person.)
* John __eats__ bananas every day. (The subject "John" is one person.)
### Time and Tense
When we tell about an event, we usually tell whether it is in the past, the present, or the future. Sometimes we do this with words like "yesterday," "now," or "tomorrow."
In some languages the verb may be a little bit different depending on the time associated with it. This kind of marking on a verb is called **tense**. English speakers sometimes put "ed" at the end of the verb when the event happened in the past.
* Sometimes Mary <u>cooks</u> meat.
* Yesterday Mary <u>cooked</u> meat. (She did this in the past.)
In some languages speakers might add a word to tell something about the time. English speakers use the word "will" when the verb refers to something in the future.
* Tomorrow Mary <u>will cook</u> meat.
### Aspect
When we tell about an event, sometimes we want to show how the event progressed over a period of time, or how the event relates to another event. This is **aspect**. English speakers sometimes use the verbs "is" or "has" and add "s," "ing," or "ed" to the end of the verb in order to show how the event relates to another event or to the present time.
* Mary <u>cooks</u> meat every day. (This tell about something Mary often does.)
* Mary <u>is cooking</u> the meat. (This tells about something Mary is in the process of doing right now.)
* Mary <u>cooked</u> the meat, and John <u>came</u> home. (This simply tells about things that Mary and John did.)
* While Mary <u>was cooking</u> the meat, John came home. (This tells about something Mary was in the process of doing when John came home)
* Mary <u>has cooked</u> the meat, and she wants us to come eat it. (This tells about something Mary did that is still relevant now.)
* Mary <u>had cooked</u> the meat by the time Mark came home. (This tells about something that Mary completed in the past before something else happened.)

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What are verbs and what kinds of things are associated with them?

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Verbs

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### Description
Imagery is language in which an image is paired with another idea so that the image represents the idea. This includes metaphors, similes, metonymies, and cultural models. Most of these things in a language come from broad patterns of pairings between images and ideas, but some do not. These pages on Biblical Imagery tell about patterns of imagery in the Bible.
The patterns of pairings found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere they see the same patterns.
### Common Patterns in Metaphors and Similes
A **metaphor** occurs when someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing. The speaker does this in order to effectively describe the first thing. For example, in "My love is a red, red rose," the speaker is describing the woman he loves as beautiful and delicate, as though she were a flower.
A **simile** is like a metaphor, except that it uses words such as "like" or "as" as a signal to the audience that it is a figure of speech. A simile using the image above would say, "My love is <u>like</u> a red, red rose."
"see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) for links to pages showing common patterns of pairings between ideas in metaphors and similes."
### Common Metonymies
In metonymy, a thing or idea is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it.
"see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) for a list of some common metonymies in the Bible"
### Cultural Models
Cultural models are mental pictures of parts of life or behavior. These pictures help us imagine and talk about these things. For example, Americans often think of many things, including marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say, "His marriage is breaking down," or "Their friendship is going full speed ahead."
The Bible often speaks of God as if he were a shepherd and his people were sheep. This is a cultural model.
>Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
Some of the cultural models in the Bible were used much by the cultures in the Ancient Near East, and not only by the Israelites.
"see [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md) for a list of cultural models in the Bible."

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What kinds of imagery are commonly used in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving body parts and human qualities are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### An ANIMAL HORN represents strength
>God is my rock. I take refuge in him.
>He is my shield, the horn of my salvation, my stronghold, and my refuge,
>the one who saves me from violence. (2 Samuel 22:3 ULB)
The "horn of my salvation" is the strong one who saves me.
>There I will make a horn to sprout for David. (Psalm 132:17 ULB)
The "horn" of David is King David's military strength.
#### BIRDS represent people who are in danger and defenseless
This is because some birds are easily trapped.
>I have been hunted like a bird by those who were my enemies. (Lamentations 3:52 ULB)
>Save yourself like a gazelle from the hand of the hunter,
>like a bird from the hand of the fowler. (Proverbs 6:5 ULB)
A fowler is a person who catches birds.
>We have escaped like a bird out of the snare of the fowlers;
>the snare has been broken, and we have escaped. (Psalm 124:7 ULB)
A snare is a small trap.
#### BIRDS THAT EAT MEAT represent enemies who attack swiftly
In Habakkuk and Hosea, Israel's enemies who would come and attack them were compared to an eagle.
> Their horsemen come from a great distance—they fly like an eagle hurrying to eat. (Habakkuk 1:8 ULB)
>An eagle is coming over the house of Yahweh.
>... Israel has rejected what is good,
>and the enemy will pursue him. (Hosea 8:1, 3 ULB)
In Isaiah, God called a certain foreign king a bird of prey because he would come quickly and attack Israel's enemies.
>I call a bird of prey from the east, the man of my choice from a distant land. (Isaiah 46:11 ULB)
#### A BIRD'S WINGS represent protection
This is because birds spread their wings over their chicks to protect them from danger.
>Protect me like the apple of your eye; hide me under the shadow of your wings
>from the presence of the wicked ones who assault me, my enemies who surround me. (Psalm 17:8-9 ULB)
Here is another example of how the wings represent protection.
>Be merciful to me, God, be merciful to me,
>for I take refuge in you until these troubles are over.
>I stay under your wings for protection until this destruction is over. (Psalm 57:1 ULB)
#### DANGEROUS ANIMALS represent dangerous people
In Psalms, David referred to his enemies as lions.
>My life is among lions;
>I am among those who are ready to devour me.
>I am among people whose teeth are spears and arrows,
>and whose tongues are sharp swords. (Psalm 57:4 ULB)
Peter called the devil a roaring lion.
>Be sober, be watchful. Your adversary the devil is stalking around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour. (1 Peter 5:8 ULB)
In Matthew, Jesus called false prophets wolves because of the harm they did to people by their lies.
>Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULB)
In Matthew, John the Baptist called the religious leaders vipers because of the harm they did by teaching lies. Vipers are a kind of poisonous snake.
>But when he saw many of the Pharisees and Sadducees coming to him for baptism, he said to them, "You offspring of vipers, who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Matthew 3:7 ULB)
#### EAGLES represent strength
>He satisfies your life with good things
>so that your youth is renewed like the eagle. (Psalm 103:5 ULB)
>For Yahweh says this, "See, the enemy will come flying like an eagle, spreading out his wings over Moab." (Jeremiah 48:40 ULB)
#### SHEEP or a FLOCK OF SHEEP represents people who need to be led or are in danger
>My people have been a lost flock. Their shepherds have led them astray in the mountains. (Jeremiah 50:6 ULB)
>He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
>Israel is a wandering sheep driven away by lions.
>First the king of Assyria devoured him;
>then after this, Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon broke his bones. (Jeremiah 50:17 ULB)
>See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. Watch out for people! They will deliver you up to councils, and they will whip you in their synagogues. (Matthew 10:16 ULB)

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What are some examples of animals and animal body parts that are used as images in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery - Animals

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### Description
Some images from the Bible related to farming are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does appear.
#### A FARMER represents God, and the VINEYARD represents his chosen people
>My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
>He spaded it, removed the stones, and planted it with an excellent kind of vine.
>He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced wild grapes. (Isaiah 5:1-2)
> For the kingdom of heaven is like a landowner who went out early in the morning to hire workers for his vineyard. (Matthew 20:1 ULB)
>There was a man, a landowner. He planted a vineyard, set a hedge about it, dug a winepress in it, built a watchtower, and rented it out to vine growers. Then he went into another country. (Matthew 21:33 ULB)
#### The GROUND represents people's hearts (inner being)
>For Yahweh says this to each person in Judah and Jerusalem: 'Plow your own ground,
>and do not sow among thorns. (Jeremiah 4:3 ULB)
>When anyone hears the word of the kingdom but does not understand it.... This is the seed that was sown beside the road. What was sown on rocky ground is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy....What was sown among the thorn plants, this is the person who hears the word, but the cares of the world and the deceitfulness of riches choke the word.... The seed that was sown on the good soil, this is the person who hears the word and understands it. (Matthew 13:19-23 ULB)
>Break up your unplowed ground,
>for it is time to seek Yahweh.... (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
#### SOWING or PLANTING represents actions or attitudes, and REAPING or GATHERING, represents judgment or reward
>According to what I have seen, those who plow iniquity
>and sow trouble reap it. (Job 4:8 ULB)
>Do not be deceived. God is not mocked, for whatever a man plants, that he will also gather in. For he who plants seed to his own sinful nature, from the sinful nature will gather destruction. The one who plants seed to the Spirit, from the spirit will gather in eternal life. (Galatians 6:7-8 ULB)
#### THRESHING and WINNOWING represent the separation of evil people from good people
After farmers harvest wheat and other types of grain, they bring them to a _threshing floor_, a flat place with hard ground, and have oxen pull heavy wheeled carts or sleds without wheels over the grain to _thresh_ it, to separate the usable grains from the useless chaff. Then they take large forks and _winnow_ the threshed grain by throwing it up in the air so the wind can carry off the chaff while the grains fall back to the threshing floor, where they can be gathered and used for food. (See the information in the translationWords document for help with translating "thresh" and "winnow.")
>So I will winnow them with a pitchfork at the gates of the land. I will bereave them. I will destroy my people since they will not turn from their ways. (Jeremiah 15:7 ULB)
> His winnowing fork is in his hand to thoroughly clear off his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse. But he will burn up the chaff with fire that can never be put out. (Luke 3:17 ULB)
#### GRAFTING represents God's allowing the Gentiles to become his people
>For if you were cut out of what is by nature a wild olive tree, and contrary to nature were grafted into a good olive tree, how much more will these, the natural branches, be grafted back into their own olive tree? For I do not want you to be uninformed, brothers, of this mystery, so that you may not be wise in your own thinking: A partial hardening has come upon Israel until the full number of the Gentiles comes in. (Romans 11:24-25 ULB)
#### RAIN represents God's gifts to his people
>...he comes and rains righteousness on you. (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
>For the land that drinks in the rain that often comes on it, and that gives birth to the plants useful to those for whom the land was worked—this is the land that receives a blessing from God. But if it bears thorns and thistles, it is worthless and is near to a curse. Its end is in burning. (Hebrews 6:7-8 ULB)
>Be patient, then, brothers, until the Lord's coming. See how the farmer waits for the precious fruit from the ground and he is patient about it, until it receives the early and late rains. (James 5:7 ULB)

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What are some examples in the Bible of images taken from farming?

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Biblical Imagery - Farming

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving body parts and human qualities are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### The BODY represents a group of people
>Now you are <u>the body</u> of Christ and individually members of it. (1 Corinthians 12:27 ULB)
>Instead, speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in every way into him who is the head, that is, Christ. Christ builds <u>the whole body</u>, and it is joined and held together by every supporting ligament, and when each part works together, that makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love. (Ephesians 4:15-16 ULB)
In these verses, the body of Christ represents the group of people who follow Christ.
#### The FACE represents someone's presence
>Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh's declaration—or tremble <u>before my face</u>? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULB)
To be before someone's face is to be in their presence, that is, to be with them.
#### The FACE represents someone's attention
>Every man of the house of Israel who takes his idols into his heart, or who puts the stumbling block of his iniquity <u>before his face</u>, and who then comes to a prophet—I, Yahweh, will answer him according to the number of his idols. (Ezekiel 14:4 ULB)
To put something before one's face is to look at it intently or pay attention to it.
>Many are those who <u>seek the face</u> of the ruler. (Proverbs 29:26 ULB)
If someone seeks another person's face, he hopes that the person will pay attention to him.
>Why do you <u>hide your face</u> and forget our affliction and our oppression? (Psalm 44:24 ULB)
To hide one's face from someone is to ignore him.
#### The FACE represents surface
>The famine was over all <u>the face</u> of the whole land. (Genesis 41:56 ULB)
> They cover <u>the face</u> of the earth and they are right now next to me. (Numbers 22:5 ULB)
#### The HAND represents a person's agency or power
>God has burst through my enemies <u>by my hand</u> like a bursting flood of water. (1 Chronicles 14:11 ULB)
"Yahweh has burst through my enemies by my hand" means "Yahweh has used me to burst through my enemies."
><u>Your hand</u> will seize all your enemies; <u>your right hand</u> will seize those who hate you. (Psalm 21:8 ULB)
"Your hand will seize all your enemies" means "By your power you will seize all your enemies."
>Look, <u>Yahweh's hand</u> is not so short that it cannot save. (Isaiah 59:1 ULB)
"His hand is not short" means that he is not weak.
#### The HEAD represents the ruler, the one who has authority over others
>God put all things under Christ's feet and gave him to the church as head over all things. (Ephesians 1:22 ULB)
>Wives, submit to your husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is <u>the head</u> of the wife, as Christ also is <u>the head</u> of the church, and Christ himself is its Savior. (Ephesians 5:22-23 ULB)
#### A MASTER represents anything that motivates someone to act
>No one can serve <u>two masters</u>, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULB)
To serve God is to be motivated by God. To serve money is to be motivated by money.
#### A NAME represents the person who has that name
>May your God make <u>the name of Solomon</u> better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne." 1 Kings 1:47 (ULB)
> See, I have sworn <u>by my great name</u>—says Yahweh. <u>My name</u> will no longer be called upon by the mouths of any of the men of Judah in all the land of Egypt." (Jeremiah 44:26 ULB)
If someone's name is great, it means that he is great.
>Yahweh, I beg you, listen now to the prayer of your servant and to the prayer of your servants who delight to <u>honor your name</u>. (Nehemiah 1:11 ULB)
To honor someone's name is to honor him.
#### A NAME represents the fame or reputation of a person
>You must no longer profane <u>my holy name</u> with your gifts and your idols. (Ezekiel 20:39 ULB)
To profane God's name is to profane his reputation, that is, to profane how people think about him.
>For I will make <u>my great name</u> holy, which you have profaned among the nations. (Ezekiel 36:23 ULB)
To make God's name holy is to cause people to to see that God is holy.
>Your servants have come here from a land very far away, because of <u>the name</u> of Yahweh your God. We have heard a report about him and about everything that he did in Egypt. (Joshua 9:9 ULB)
The fact that the men said they heard a report about Yahweh shows that "because of the name of Yahweh" means because of Yahweh's reputation.
#### The NOSE represents anger
>The foundations of the world were laid bare at your rebuke, Yahweh, at the blast of the breath of <u>your nostrils</u>. (Psalm 18:15 ULB)
>By the blast of <u>your nostrils</u> the waters were piled up. (Exodus 15:8 ULB)
>Smoke went up from out of <u>his nostrils</u>, and blazing fire came out of his mouth. (2 Samuel 22:9 ULB)
A blast of air or smoke coming from someone's nose shows his great anger.
#### RAISED EYES represents arrogance
>For you save afflicted people, but you bring down those with <u>proud, uplifted eyes</u>! (Psalm 18:27 ULB)
Uplifted eyes show that a person is proud.
>God humbles a proud man, and he saves the one with <u>lowered eyes</u>. (Job 22:29 ULB)
Lowered eyes show that a person is humble.
#### The SON OF SOMETHING shares its qualities
>No <u>son of wickedness</u> will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22 ULB)
A son of wickedness is a wicked person.
>May the groans of the prisoners come before you;
>with the greatness of your power keep the <u>children of death</u> alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULB)
Children of death here are people whom others plan to kill.
>Once we all lived among these people, fulfilling the evil desires of our sinful nature, and carrying out the desires of the body and of the mind. We were by nature <u>children of wrath</u>, like the rest of humanity. (Ephesians 2:3 ULB)
Children of wrath here are people with whom God is very angry.
### Translation Strategies
(see the Translations Strategies on [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md))

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving human behavior are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### BEING BENT OVER represents being discouraged
>Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are <u>bent over</u>. (Psalm 145:14 ULB)
#### BIRTH PAINS represent the suffering that is necessary to achieve a new condition
><u>Be in pain and labor to give birth</u>, daughter of Zion, like a <u>woman in labor</u>.
>For now you will go out of the city, live in the field, and go to Babylon.
>There you will be rescued.
>There Yahweh will rescue you from the hand of your enemies. (Micah 4:10 ULB)
>For nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom. There will be famines and earthquakes in various places. But all these things are only the beginning of <u>birth pains</u>. (Matthew 24:7-8 ULB)
>My little children, again I am in the <u>pains of childbirth</u> for you until Christ is formed in you. (Galatians 4:19 ULB)
#### BEING CALLED SOMETHING represents being that thing
>The Holy One of Israel is your Redeemer; he <u>is called</u> the God of the whole earth. (Isaiah 54:5b ULB)
This is because he actually is the God of the whole earth.
>The one who is wise in heart <u>is called</u> discerning. (Proverbs 16:21a ULB)
This is because he actually is discerning.
>He will ... <u>be called</u> the Son of the Most High. (Luke 1:32 ULB)
This is because he actually is the Son of the Most High.
>So the holy one to be born will <u>be called</u> the Son of God. (Luke 1:35 ULB)
This is because he actually is the Son of God.
#### CLEANLINESS represents being acceptable for God's purposes
>Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the <u>clean</u> animals and some of the <u>clean</u> birds, and offered burnt offerings on the altar. (Genesis 8:20 ULB)
>The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him <u>clean</u>. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 13:6 ULB)
#### CLEANSING or PURIFYING represents making something acceptable for God's Purposes
>He must go out to the altar.... He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to <u>cleanse</u> it and set it apart to Yahweh, away from the unclean actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULB)
>This is because on this day atonement will be made for you, to <u>cleanse</u> you from all your sins so you will be <u>clean</u> before Yahweh. (Leviticus 16:30 ULB)
#### UNCLEANLINESS represents not being acceptable for God's purposes
>You may eat any animal that has a split hoof and that also chews the cud. However, some animals either chew the cud or have a split hoof, and <u>you must not eat them</u>, animals such as the camel, because it chews the cud but does not have a split hoof. So the camel is <u>unclean</u> to you. (Leviticus 11:3-4 ULB)
>If any of them dies and falls on anything, that thing will be <u>unclean</u>, whether it is made of wood, cloth, leather, or sackcloth. Whatever it is and whatever it is used for, it must be put into water; it will be <u>unclean</u> until evening. Then it will be <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 11:32 ULB)
#### MAKING SOMETHING UNCLEAN represents making it unacceptable for God's purposes.
>Or if anyone touches anything God has designated as <u>unclean</u>, whether it be the carcass of an <u>unclean</u> wild animal or the carcass of any <u>unclean</u> livestock or <u>unclean</u> creatures that move along the ground, even though he was not aware of what he had done, he has become <u>unclean</u> and is guilty. (Leviticus 5:2 ULB)
#### BEING CUT OFF FROM SOMETHING represents being separated from it
>Uzziah, the king, was a leper to the day of his death and lived in a separate house since he was a leper, for he <u>was cut off from the house of Yahweh</u>. (2 Chronicles 26:21 ULB)
#### BEING CUT OFF represents being killed
>So you must keep the Sabbath, for it must be treated by you as holy, reserved for him. Everyone who defiles it must surely <u>be put to death</u>. Whoever works on the Sabbath, that person must surely <u>be cut off from his people</u>. (Exodus 31:14-15 ULB)
>Whoever does not humble himself on that day must be <u>cut off from his people</u>. Whoever does any work on that day, <u>I, Yahweh, will destroy him</u> from among his people. (Leviticus 23:29-30 ULB)
>But he was <u>cut off</u> from the land of the living. (Isaiah 53:8 ULB)
#### COMING AND STANDING BEFORE SOMEONE represents serving him
>How blessed are your wives, and how blessed are your servants who constantly <u>stand before you</u>, because they hear your wisdom. (1 Kings 10:8 ULB)
>Steadfast love and faithfulness <u>come before you</u>. (Psalm 89:14 ULB)
Steadfast love and faithfulness are also personified here. (see [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
#### DRUNKENNESS represents suffering, and WINE represents judgment
Too much wine makes a person weak, and he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God's judgment.
>You have made your people see difficult things;
>you have made us <u>drink the wine of staggering</u>. (Psalm 60:3 ULB)
>But God is the judge;
>he brings down and he lifts up.
>For Yahweh holds in his hand a cup of <u>foaming wine</u>,
>which is mixed with spices, and pours it out.
>Surely all the wicked of the earth will <u>drink it</u> to the last drop. (Psalm 75:8 ULB)
>He will also drink some of the <u>wine</u> of God's wrath, the <u>wine</u> that has been poured undiluted into the cup of his anger. (Revelation 14:10 ULB)
#### EATING UP represents destroying
>God will bring [Israel] out of Egypt.
>He will have strength like a wild ox.
><u>He will eat up the nations who fight against him</u>.
>He will break their bones to pieces.
>He will shoot them with his arrows. (Numbers 24:8 ULB)
Another word for "eat up" is devour.
>Therefore as <u>the tongue of fire devours stubble</u>, and as the dry grass goes down in flame,
>so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust. (Isaiah 5:24 ULB)
>Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies,
>the Arameans on the east, and the Philistines on the west.
><u>They will devour Israel with open mouth</u>. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULB)
>I will make my arrows drunk with blood,
>and <u>my sword will devour flesh</u>
>with the blood of the killed and the captives,
>and from the heads of the leaders of the enemy. (Deuteronomy 32:42 ULB)
#### FALLING UPON or BEING UPON represents affecting
>Yahweh God caused a deep sleep to <u>fall upon</u> the man, so the man slept. (Genesis 2:21 ULB)
>Will not his majesty terrify you,
>and the dread of him <u>fall upon</u> you? (Job 13:11 ULB)
>Then the Spirit of Yahweh <u>fell on me</u> and he said for me to say ... (Ezekiel 11:5 ULB)
>Now look, the hand of the Lord <u>is upon you</u>, and you will become blind. (Acts 13:11 ULB)
#### FOLLOWING SOMEONE represents being loyal to him
>They broke away from Yahweh, the God of their fathers, who had brought them out of the land of Egypt. <u>They went after other gods</u>, the very gods of the peoples who were around them, and they bowed down to them. They provoked Yahweh to anger because they broke away from Yahweh and worshiped Baal and the Ashtoreths. (Judges 2:12-13 ULB)
>For Solomon <u>followed</u> Ashtoreth, the goddess of the Sidonians, and <u>he followed</u> Molech, the disgusting idol of the Ammonites. (1 Kings 11:5 ULB)
>Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. <u>He has followed me fully</u>; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULB)
#### INHERITING represents permanently possessing something
>Then the King will say to those on his right hand, "Come, you who have been blessed by my Father, <u>inherit</u> the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world." (Matthew 25:34)
The blessing of God's complete rule is given as the permanent possession to those to whom the King is speaking.
>Now this I say, brothers, that flesh and blood cannot <u>inherit</u> the kingdom of God. Neither does what is perishable <u>inherit</u> what is imperishable. (1 Corinthians 15:50 ULB)
People cannot receive the kingdom of God in its complete form as a permanent possession while they are still in their mortal bodies.
An **INHERITANCE** represents something that someone permanently possesses
>You will bring them and plant them on the mountain of your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 15:17 ULB)
The mountain where God will be worshiped is viewed as his permanent possession.
>Pardon our iniquity and our sin, and take us as your <u>inheritance</u>. (Exodus 34:9 ULB)
Moses asks God to still accept the people of Israel as his special possession, that is, as the people permanently belonging to him.
>... the richness of his glorious <u>inheritance</u> among all God's holy people. (Ephesians 1:18 ULB)
The wonderful things that God will give all who are set apart for him is viewed as their permanent possession.
An **HEIR** represents someone who is given something to possess forever
> so that having been justified by his grace, we might become <u>heirs</u> having the hope of eternal life. (Titus 3:7 ULB)
>Listen, my beloved brothers, did not God choose the poor of the world to be rich in faith and to be <u>heirs</u> of the kingdom that he promised to those who love him? (James 2:5 ULB)
>It was by faith that Noah...condemned the world and became an <u>heir</u> of the righteousness that is according to faith. (Hebrews 11:7 ULB)
#### LYING DOWN represents DYING
>When your days are fulfilled and you <u>lie down with your fathers</u>, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12 ULB)
>[Ask them,] 'Are you really more beautiful than anyone else? <u>Go down and lie down</u> with the uncircumcised!'
>They will fall among those who were killed by the sword! [Egypt] is given to the sword; [her enemies] will seize her and her multitudes! (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULB)
#### REIGNING OR RULING represents controlling
>This happened so that, as sin <u>ruled</u> in death, even so grace might <u>rule</u> through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULB)
>Therefore do not let sin <u>rule</u> in your mortal body in order that you obey its lusts. (Romans 6:12 ULB)
#### RESTING or a RESTING PLACE represents a permanent beneficial situation
>Naomi her mother-in-law said to her, "My daughter, should I not seek a place for you to <u>rest</u>, so that things may go well for you?" (Ruth 3:1 ULB)
>Therefore I vowed in my anger that they would never enter into my <u>resting place</u>. (Psalm 95:11 ULB)
>This is my <u>resting place</u> forever; I will live here, for I desire [Zion]. (Psalm 132:14 ULB)
>The nations will seek him out, and his <u>resting place</u> will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10 ULB)
#### RISING, STANDING UP represents acting
><u>Rise up</u> for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULB)
#### SEEING SOMETHING represents being there
>You will not let your faithful one <u>see</u> the pit. (Psalm 16:10 ULB)
#### SELLING represents handing over to someone's control. BUYING represents removing from someone's control
>[Yahweh] <u>sold</u> [the Israelites] into the hand of Cushan-Rishathaim king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8 ULB)
#### SITTING is ruling
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness; and one from David's tent will faithfully <u>sit</u> there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULB)
#### STANDING represents successfully resisting
>Hear, Israel; you are about to cross over the Jordan today, to go in to dispossess nations greater and mightier than yourself, and cities that are great and fortified up to heaven, a people great and tall, the sons of the Anakim, whom you know, and of whom you have heard people say, 'Who can <u>stand</u> before the sons of Anak?' (Deuteronomy 9:1-2 ULB)
>Who can <u>stand</u> before his wrath? Who can resist the fierceness of his anger?
>His wrath is poured out like fire, and the rocks are broken apart by him. (Nahum 1:6 ULB)
#### WALKING represents behaving and PATH (WAY) represents behavior
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULB)
>For Yahweh approves of the <u>way</u> of the righteous. (Psalm 1:6 ULB)
>Turn from me the <u>path</u> of deceit. (Psalm 119:29 ULB)
>I will run in the <u>path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULB)

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving man-made objects are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### BRONZE represents strength
>He trains ... my arms to bend a bow of <u>bronze</u>. Psalm 18:34 ULB)
#### CHAINS represent control
>Let us tear off the <u>shackles</u> they put on us and throw off their <u>chains</u>. Psalm 2:3
#### CLOTHING represents moral qualities (emotions, attitudes, spirit, life)
>It is God who puts strength on me like a <u>belt</u>. (Psalm 18:32 ULB)
>Righteousness will be the <u>belt of his waist</u>, and faithfulness the <u>belt around his hips</u>. (Isaiah 11:5 ULB)
>May my adversaries be <u>clothed with shame</u>; may they <u>wear their shame like a robe</u>. (Psalm 109:29 ULB)
>I will <u>clothe his enemies with shame</u>. (Psalm 132:18 ULB)
#### A SNARE (A LIGHT TRAP FOR BIRDS WORKED BY CORDS) represents death
>For he will rescue you from the <u>snare</u> of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3 ULB)
>The <u>cords of death</u> surrounded me, and the <u>snares</u> of sheol confronted me. (Psalm 116:3 ULB)
>The <u>cords of the wicked</u> have <u>ensnared</u> me. (Psalm 119:61 ULB)
>The wicked have <u>set a snare</u> for me. (Psalm 119:110 ULB)
>The wicked is <u>ensnared</u> by his own actions. (Psalm 9:16 ULB)
>They mingled with the nations and learned their ways and worshiped their idols, which became <u>a snare</u> to them. (Psalm 106:35-36 ULB)
In this case the snare was a persuasion to do evil, which leads to death.
#### A TENT represents a house, home, people in one's home, descendants
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will take you up and pluck you out of your tent. (Psalm 52:5 ULB)
>The house of wicked people will be destroyed, but the tent of upright people will flourish. (Proverbs 14:11 ULB)
>A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David's tent will faithfully sit there. (Isaiah 16:5 ULB)

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### Description
In all languages, most **metaphors** come from broad patterns of pairings of ideas in which one idea represents another. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing __height__ with "much" and pairing __being low__ with "not much," so that __height__ represents "much" and __being low__ represents "not much." This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is __high__, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone __up__. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone __down__.
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere.
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of <u>walking</u> with "behaving" and <u>a path</u> with a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1 walking in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
>Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. (Psalm 1:1 ULB)
This pattern is also seen in Psalm 119:32 where running in the path of God's commands represents doing what God commands. Since running is more intense than walking, the idea of running here might give the idea of doing this whole-heartedly.
>I will <u>run in the path</u> of your commandments. (Psalm 119:32 ULB)
### Reasons this is a translation issue
These patterns present three challenges to anyone who wants to identify them:
####Determining whether or not there are paired ideas
When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether "lamp" refers concretely to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether "lamp" is an image that represents life. (see "FIRE or LAMP represents life" in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md)) In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary lamp. In 2 Samuel 21:17 the lamp of Israel represents King David's life. When his men were concerned that he might "put out the lamp of Israel," they were concerned that he might be killed.
>Solomon also had made the cups, <u>lamp</u> trimmers, basins, spoons, and incense burners, all of which were all made of pure gold. (1 Kings 7:50 ULB)
>Ishbi-Benob...intended to kill David. But Abishai son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp</u> of Israel." (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULB)
####Identifying paired ideas
When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, "It is God who puts strength on me like a belt" (Psalm 18:32 ULB) is based on the pairing of clothing with moral quality. In this case, the image of a belt represents strength. (see "Clothing represents a moral quality" in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md))
####Identifying combinations of paired ideas
Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with—and in some cases are based on—common metonymies and cultural models. (see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](bita-part2) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md))
For example, in 2 Samuel 14:7 below, "the burning coal" is an image for the life of the son, who represents what will cause people to remember his father. So there are two patterns of pairings here: the pairing of the burning coal with the life of the son, and the pairing of the son with the memory of his father.
>They say, 'Give into our hand the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out <u>the burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for <u>my husband neither name nor descendant</u> on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULB)
### Links to Lists of Images in the Bible
The following pages have lists of some of the ideas that represent others in the Bible, together with examples from the Bible. They are organized according to the kinds of image:
* [Biblical Imagery - Body Parts and Human Qualities](../bita-hq//01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Human Behavior](../bita-humanbehavior/01.md) - Includes both physical and non-physical actions, conditions and experiences
* [Biblical Imagery - Plants](../bita-plants/01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md)

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Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns

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### Description
Some common metonymies from the Bible are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### A CUP or bowl represents what is in it
>My <u>cup</u> runs over. (Psalm 23:5 ULB)
There is so much in the cup that it runs over the top of the cup.
>For every time you eat this bread and drink this <u>cup</u>, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (1 Corinthians 11:26 ULB)
People do not drink cups. They drink what is in the cup.
#### The MOUTH, LIPS, or TONGUE represents speech or words
>A fool's <u>mouth</u> is his ruin, and he ensnares himself with his <u>lips</u>. (Proverbs 18:7 ULB)
>The words of one who speaks rashly are like the thrusts of a sword, but the <u>tongue</u> of the wise brings healing. (Proverbs 12:18)
>Oh, how I would encourage you with my <u>mouth</u>! (Job 16:5 ULB)
>I heard you when you boasted against me with your <u>mouth</u>; you said many things against me. I heard them. (Ezekiel 35:13 ULB)
In these examples the mouth, lips, and tongue refer to what a person says.
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON represents his descendants
The memory of a person represents his descendants, because they are the ones who should remember and honor him. When the Bible says that someone's memory dies, it means that either he will not have any descendants, or his descendants will all die.
>You rebuked the nations;
>you have destroyed the wicked;
>you have blotted out their name forever.
>The enemy crumbled like ruins
>when you overthrew their cities.
>All <u>remembrance of them</u> has perished. (Psalm 9:5-6 ULB)
> His roots will be dried up beneath; above will his branch be cut off. <u>His memory</u> will perish from the earth. (Job 18:16-17 ULB)
>The face of Yahweh is against those who do evil,
>to cut off <u>the memory of them</u> from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULB)
#### ONE PERSON represents a group of people
>For <u>the wicked person</u> boasts of his deepest desires;
>he blesses the greedy and insults Yahweh. (Psalm 10:3 ULB)
This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in general.
#### A PERSON'S NAME represents his descendants
>Gad—raiders will attack him, but he will attack them at their heels.
>Asher's food will be rich, and he will provide royal delicacies.
>Naphtali is a doe let loose; he will have beautiful fawns. (Genesis 49:19-21 ULB)
The names Gad, Asher, and Naphtali refer not only to those men, but to their descendants.
#### A PERSON represents himself and the people with him
>It came about that when Abram entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULB)
Here when it says "Abram" it represents Abram and all the people traveling with him. The focus was on Abram.
#### PIERCING represents killing
>His hand <u>pierced</u> the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13 ULB)
This means that he killed the serpent.
>Look, he is coming with the clouds; every eye will see him, including those who <u>pierced</u> him. (Revelation 1:7 ULB)
"Those who pierced him" refers to those who killed Jesus.
#### SINS (INIQUITY) represent punishment for those sins
>Yahweh has placed on him the <u>iniquity</u> of us all. (Isaiah 53:6 ULB)
This means that Yahweh placed on him the punishment that should have gone to all of us.

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What are some common metonymies used in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies

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### Description
Cultural models are mental pictures of parts of life or behavior. These pictures help us imagine and talk about these topics. For example, Americans often think of many things, even marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say "His marriage is breaking down" or "Their friendship is going full speed ahead." In this example, human relationships are modeled as a MACHINE.
Some cultural models, or mental pictures, found in the Bible are listed below. First there are models for God, then models for humans, things, and experiences. Each heading has the model written in capital letters. That word or phrase does not necessarily appear in every verse, but the idea does.
#### God is modeled as a HUMAN BEING
Although the Bible explicitly denies that God is a human being, he is often spoken of as doing things that humans do. But God is not human, so when the Bible says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when it says something about him doing something with his hand, we should not think that he has a physical hand.
>If we hear <u>the voice of Yahweh our God</u> any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULB)
>I have been strengthened by <u>the hand of Yahweh my God</u>. (Ezra 7:28 ULB)
><u>The hand of God</u> also came on Judah, to give them one heart, to carry out the command of the king and leaders by the word of Yahweh. (2 Chronicles 30:12 ULB)
The word "hand" here is a metonym that refers to God's power. (See: [Metonymy](../figs-metonymy/01.md))
#### God is modeled as a KING
>For God is the <u>King</u> over all the earth. (Psalm 47:7 ULB)
>For the <u>kingdom</u> is Yahweh's;
>he is the <u>ruler</u> over the nations. (Psalm 22:28 ULB)
>Your <u>throne</u>, God, is forever and ever;
>a <u>scepter</u> of justice is the scepter of your <u>kingdom</u>. (Psalm 45:6 ULB)
>This is what Yahweh says,
>"Heaven is my <u>throne</u>, and the earth is my <u>footstool</u>. (Isaiah 66:1 ULB)
>God <u>reigns</u> over the nations;
>God sits on his holy <u>throne</u>. (Psalm 47:8 ULB)
#### God is modeled as a SHEPHERD and his people are modeled as SHEEP
>Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
His people are sheep.
>For he is our God, and we are the people of <u>his pasture</u> and the <u>sheep of his hand</u>. (Psalm 95:7 ULB)
He leads his people like sheep.
>He led his own people out <u>like sheep</u> and guided them through the wilderness <u>like a flock</u>. (Psalm 78:52 ULB)
He is willing to die in order to save his sheep.
>I am the good shepherd, and I know my own, and my own know me. The Father knows me, and I know the Father, and <u>I lay down my life for the sheep</u>. I have other sheep that are not of this sheep pen. I must bring them also, and they will hear my voice so that there will be one flock and one shepherd. (John 10:14-15 ULB)
#### God is modeled as a WARRIOR
>Yahweh is a <u>warrior</u>. (Exodus 15:3 ULB)
>Yahweh will go out as a <u>warrior</u>; as a <u>man of war</u> he will stir up his zeal.
>He will shout, yes, he will roar his <u>battle cries</u>; he will <u>show his enemies his power</u>. (Isaiah 42:13 ULB)
>Your right hand, Yahweh, is <u>glorious in power</u>;
>your right hand, Yahweh, <u>has shattered the enemy</u>. (Exodus 15:6 ULB)
>But <u>God will shoot them</u>;
>suddenly they will be <u>wounded with his arrows</u>. (Psalm 64:7 ULB)
>For you will turn them back; <u>you will draw your bow</u> before them. (Psalm 21:12 ULB)
#### A leader is modeled as a SHEPHERD and those he leads are modeled as SHEEP
>Then all the tribes of Israel came to David at Hebron and said, "Look...when Saul was king over us, it was you who led the Israelite army. Yahweh said to you, 'You will <u>shepherd</u> my people Israel, and you will become ruler over Israel.' " (2 Samuel 5:1-2 ULB)
> "Woe to the <u>shepherds</u> who destroy and scatter the <u>sheep</u> of my <u>pasture</u>—this is Yahweh's declaration." (Jeremiah 23:1 ULB)
>Therefore be careful about yourselves, and about all the <u>flock</u> of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to <u>shepherd</u> the church of God, which he purchased with his own blood. I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will come in among you and will not spare the <u>flock</u>. I know that from even among you some men shall come and distort the truth, in order to draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULB)
#### The eye is modeled as a LAMP
Variations of this model and the model of the EVIL EYE are found in many parts of the world. In most of the cultures represented in the Bible, these models included the following elements:
People see objects, not because of light around the object, but because of light that shines from their eyes onto those objects.
>The eye is the <u>lamp</u> of the body. Therefore, if your eye is good, the whole body is <u>filled with light</u>. (Matthew 6:22 ULB)
This light shining from the eyes carries with itself the viewer's character.
>The appetite of the wicked craves evil; his neighbor finds no <u>favor in his eyes</u>. (Proverbs 21:10 ULB)
#### Envy and cursing are modeled as looking with an EVIL EYE at someone, and favor is modeled as looking with a GOOD EYE at someone
The primary emotion of a person with the evil eye is envy. The Greek word translated as "envy" in Mark 7 is "eye," which refers here to an evil eye.
>He said, "It is that which comes out of the person that defiles him. For from within a person, out of the heart, proceed evil thoughts..., <u>envy</u>.... (Mark 7:20-22 ULB)
If a person's eye is evil, that person is envious of other people's money.
>The eye is the lamp of the body. Therefore, if your <u>eye is good</u>, the whole body is filled with light. But if your <u>eye is bad</u>, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. <u>You cannot serve God and wealth</u>. (Matthew 6:22-24 ULB)
A person with a good eye can put a blessing on someone by looking at him.
>If I have found <u>favor in your eyes</u>... (1 Samuel 27:5 ULB)
#### Life is modeled as BLOOD
In this model, the blood of a person or an animal represents its life.
>But you must not eat meat with <u>its life—that is its blood</u>—in it. (Genesis 9:4 ULB)
If blood is spilled or shed, someone has been killed.
>Whoever <u>sheds man's blood</u>, by man will his <u>blood be shed</u>. (Genesis 9:6 ULB)
>This person would not die by the hand of the one who wanted to avenge <u>the blood that was shed</u>, until the accused person would first stand before the assembly. (Joshua 20:9 ULB)
If blood cries out, nature itself is crying out for vengeance on a person who killed someone. (This also includes personification, because the blood is pictured as someone that can cry out. See: [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
>Yahweh said, "What have you done? <u>Your brother's blood is calling out to me</u> from the ground. (Genesis 4:10 ULB)
#### A country is modeled as a WOMAN, and its gods are modeled as HER HUSBAND
>It came about, as soon as Gideon was dead, the people of Israel turned again and <u>prostituted themselves</u> by worshiping the Baals. They made Baal-Berith their god. (Judges 8:33 ULB)
#### The nation of Israel is modeled as GOD'S SON
>When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called <u>my son</u> out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULB)
#### The sun is modeled as BEING IN A CONTAINER AT NIGHT
>Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched <u>a tent for the sun</u> among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of <u>his chamber</u> and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULB)
Psalm 110 pictures the sun as being in the womb before it comes out in the morning.
>From <u>the womb</u> of the dawn your youth will be to you like the dew. (Psalm 110:3 ULB)
#### Things that can move fast are modeled as having WINGS
This is especially true of things that move in the air or the sky.
The sun is modeled as a disc with wings, which allow it to "fly" through the air from east to west during the daytime. In Psalm 139, "the wings of the morning" refers to the sun. In Malachi 4 God called himself the "sun of righteousness" and he spoke of the sun as having wings.
>If I fly away on <u>the wings of the morning</u> and go to live in the uttermost parts across the sea... (Psalm 139:9 ULB)
>But for you who fear my name, the sun of righteousness will rise with healing <u>in its wings</u>. (Malachi 4:2 ULB)
The wind moves quickly and is modeled as having wings.
>He was seen on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (2 Samuel 22:11 ULB)
>He rode on a cherub and flew; he glided on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (Psalm 18:10 ULB)
>You walk on the <u>wings of the wind</u>. (Psalm 104:3 ULB)
#### Futility is modeled as something that the WIND can blow away
In this model, the wind blows away things that are worthless, and they are gone.
Psalm 1 and Job 27 show that wicked people are worthless and will not live long.
>The wicked are not so,
>but are instead <u>like the chaff that the wind drives away</u>. (Psalm 1:4 ULB)
><u>The east wind carries him away</u>, and he leaves;
><u>it sweeps him out of his place</u>. (Job 27:21 ULB)
In Job 30:15, Job complains that his honor and prosperity are gone.
>Terrors are turned upon me;
>my honor is <u>driven away as if by the wind</u>;
>my prosperity <u>passes away as a cloud</u>. (Job 30:15 ULB)
#### Human warfare is modeled as DIVINE WARFARE
When there was a war between nations, people believed that the gods of those nations were also at war.
>This happened while the Egyptians were burying all their firstborn, those whom Yahweh had killed among them, for <u>he also inflicted punishment on their gods</u>. (Numbers 33:4 ULB)
>What nation is like your people Israel, the one nation on earth whom you, God, went and rescued for yourself?...You drove out nations <u>and their gods</u> from before your people, whom you rescued from Egypt. (2 Samuel 7:23 ULB)
>The servants of the king of Aram said to him, "<u>Their god is a god of the hills. That is why they were stronger than we were</u>. But now let us fight against them in the plain, and surely there we will be stronger than they." (1 Kings 20:23 ULB)
#### Constraints in life are modeled as PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES
The verses below are not about real physical boundaries but about difficulties or the lack of difficulties in life.
>He built <u>a wall</u> around me and I cannot escape. He made my chains heavy. (Lamentations 3:7 ULB)
>He blocked my path with <u>a wall of hewn stone</u>; he made my paths crooked. (Lamentations 3:9 ULB)
><u>Measuring lines</u> have been laid for me in pleasant places. (Psalm 16:6 ULB)
#### Dangerous places are modeled as NARROW PLACES
In Psalm 4 David asks God to rescue him.
>Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
>give me room <u>when I am hemmed in</u>.
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULB)
#### A distressing situation is modeled as a WILDERNESS
When Job was distressed because of all the sad things that happened to him, he spoke as if he were in a wilderness. Jackals and ostriches are animals that live in the wilderness.
>My heart is troubled and does not rest;
>days of affliction have come on me.
>I have gone about like one who was living in the dark,
>but not because of the sun;
>I stand up in the assembly and cry for help.
>I am <u>a brother to jackals</u>,
><u>a companion of ostriches</u>. (Job 30:27-29 ULB)
#### Wellbeing is modeled as PHYSICAL CLEANLINESS, and evil is modeled as PHYSICAL DIRTINESS
Leprosy is a disease. If a person had it, he was said to be unclean.
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>." Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, "I am willing. Be clean." Immediately he was <u>cleansed of his leprosy.</u> (Matthew 8:2-3 ULB)
An "unclean spirit" is an evil spirit.
>When an <u>unclean spirit</u> has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULB)

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What are cultural models and what are some cultural models found in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### LIGHT represents someone's face (This often combines with FACE represents someone's presence)
>Yahweh, lift up the <u>light of your face</u> on us. (Psalm 4:6 ULB)
>For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword,
>neither did their own arm save them;
>but your right hand, your arm, and the <u>light of your face</u>,
>because you were favorable to them. (Psalm 44:3 ULB)
>They did not reject the <u>light of my face</u>. (Job 29:24 ULB)
>Yahweh, they walk in the <u>light of your face</u>. (Psalm 89:15 ULB)
#### LIGHT represents goodness, and DARKNESS represents evil
>But if your eye is bad, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! (Matthew 6:23 ULB)
#### SHADOW or DARKNESS represents death
>Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the <u>shadow of death</u>. (Psalm 44:19)
#### FIRE represents extreme feelings, particularly love or anger
>Surging waters cannot <u>quench</u> love. (Song of Songs 8:7 ULB)
>For <u>a fire is kindled by my anger</u> and <u>is burning</u> to the lowest sheol. (Deuteronomy 32:22 ULB)
>Therefore, <u>the anger of Yahweh was set on fire</u> against Israel. (Judges 3:8 ULB)
>When Yahweh heard this, <u>he was angry</u>; so <u>his fire burned</u> against Jacob, and <u>his anger</u> attacked Israel. (Psalm 78:21 ULB)
#### FIRE OR A LAMP represents life
>They say, 'Give into our hand the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.' So they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the <u>burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULB)
>Ishbi-Benob... intended to kill David. But Abishai son of Zeruiah rescued David.... Then the men of David swore to him, saying, "You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out <u>the lamp of Israel</u> (2 Samuel 21:17 ULB)
>I will give one tribe to Solomon's son, so that David my servant may always have <u>a lamp</u> before me in Jerusalem. (1 Kings 11:36 ULB)
>Nevertheless for David's sake, Yahweh his God gave him <u>a lamp</u> in Jerusalem by raising up his son after him in order to strengthen Jerusalem. (1 Kings 15:4 ULB)
>Indeed, <u>the light</u> of the wicked person will be put out; <u>the spark of his fire</u> will not shine. <u>The light</u> will be dark in his tent; <u>his lamp</u> above him will be put out. (Job 18:5-6 ULB)
>For you give <u>light to my lamp</u>; Yahweh my God <u>lights up my darkness</u>. (Psalm 18:28 ULB)
>A dimly burning wick he will not quench. (Isaiah 42:3 ULB)
#### A WIDE SPACE reperesents safetey, security, and ease
>They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support!
>He set me free in <u>a wide open place</u>; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalm 18:18-19 ULB)
>You have made <u>a wide place</u> for my feet beneath me,
>so my feet have not slipped. (2 Samuel 22:37 ULB)
>You made people ride over our heads;
>we went through fire and water,
>but you brought us out into <u>a spacious place</u>. (Psalm 66:12 ULB)
#### A NARROW SPACE represents danger or difficulties
>Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
>give me room when <u>I am hemmed in</u>.
>Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. Psalm 4:1 ULB)
>For a prostitute is a deep pit,
>and an immoral woman is <u>a narrow well</u>. (Proverbs 23:27 ULB)
#### LIQUID represents a moral quality (emotion, attitude, spirit, life)
>Yahweh has burst through my enemies before me like a bursting <u>flood of water</u>. (2 Samuel 5:20 ULB)
>But he will make a full end to his enemies with an overwhelming <u>flood</u>. (Nahum 1:8 ULB)
>I am being <u>poured out like water</u>. (Psalm 22:14 ULB)
>It will come about afterward that I will <u>pour out</u> my Spirit on all flesh. (Joel 2:28 ULB)
>For it is great, the anger of Yahweh that has been <u>poured out</u> on us. (2 Chronicles 34:21 ULB)
#### WATER represents what someone says
>A quarreling wife is a constant <u>dripping of water</u>. (Proverbs 19:13 ULB)
>His lips are lilies, <u>dripping with myrrh</u>. (Song of Songs 5:13 ULB)
>My groaning is <u>poured out like water</u>. (Job 3:24 ULB)
>The words of a man's mouth are <u>deep waters</u>; the <u>fountain of wisdom</u> is a flowing stream. (Proverbs 18:4 ULB)
#### FLOODING WATER represents disaster
>I have come into <u>deep waters</u>, where the <u>floods flow</u> over me. (Psalm 69:2 ULB)
>Do not let the <u>floods of water</u> overwhelm me. (Psalm 69:15 ULB)
>Reach out your hand from above; rescue me out of <u>many waters</u>, from the hands of these foreigners. (Psalm 144:7 ULB)
#### A SPRING OF WATER represents the origins of something
>The fear of Yahweh is a <u>fountain of life</u>. (Proverbs 14:27 ULB)
#### A ROCK represents protection
>Yahweh is <u>my rock</u>, my fortress, the one who brings me to safety; he is my God, <u>my rock</u>; I take refuge in him. (Psalm 18:2 ULB)
>Listen to me; rescue me quickly; be <u>my rock of refuge</u>, a stronghold to save me. (Psalm 31:2)
> For in the day of trouble he will hide me in his shelter; in the cover of his tent he will conceal me. He will lift me high on <u>a rock</u>! Then my head will be lifted up above my enemies all around me. (Psalm 27:5-6)

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What are some examples of things in nature that are used as images in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena

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### Description
Some images from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### A BRANCH represents a person's descendant
In the examples below, Isaiah wrote about one of Jesse's descendants and Jeremiah wrote about one of David's descendants.
><u>A shoot</u> will sprout from the stump of Jesse, and <u>a branch</u> out of his root will bear fruit.
>The Spirit of Yahweh will rest upon him, the Spirit of wisdom and understanding. (Isaiah 11:1-2 ULB)
>See, days are coming—this is Yahweh's declaration—when I will raise up for David <u>a righteous branch</u>.
>He will reign as king; he will act wisely and cause justice and righteousness in the land. (Jeremiah 23:5 ULB)
In Job when it says "his branch will be cut off," it means that he will not have any descendants.
>His roots will be dried up beneath;
>above will <u>his branch be cut off</u>.
>His memory will perish from the earth;
>he will have no name in the street. (Job 18:16-17 ULB)
#### A PLANT represents a person
>God will likewise destroy you forever; he will ... <u>root you out</u> of the land of the living. (Psalm 52:5 ULB)
#### A PLANT represents an emotion or attitude
Just as planting one kind of seed results in that kind of plant growing, behaving in one way results in that kind of consequence.
The emotion or attitude in the verses is underlined below.
>Sow <u>righteousness</u> for yourselves, and reap the fruit of <u>covenant faithfulness</u>. (Hosea 10:12 ULB)
>According to what I have seen, those who plow <u>iniquity</u> and sow <u>trouble</u> reap it. (Job 4:8 ULB)
>For the people sow <u>the wind</u> and reap <u>the whirlwind</u>. (Hosea 8:7 ULB)
>You have turned ... the fruit of <u>righteousness</u> into bitterness. (Amos 6:12 ULB)
>At that time, what fruit then did you have of the things of which you are now <u>ashamed</u>? (Romans 6:21 ULB)
#### A TREE represents a person
>He will be like <u>a tree planted</u> by the streams of water that <u>produces its fruit in its season</u>, whose <u>leaves do not wither</u>; whatever he does will prosper. (Psalm 1:3 ULB)
>I have seen the wicked and terrifying person spread out <u>like a green tree in its native soil</u>. (Psalm 37:35 ULB)
>I am <u>like a green olive tree</u> in the house of God. (Psalm 52:8 ULB)

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What are some examples of plants that are used as images in the Bible?

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Biblical Imagery - Plants

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### Description
Normally a speaker refers to himself as "I" and the person he is speaking to as "you." Sometimes in the Bible a speaker referred to himself or to the person he was speaking to with a phrase other than "I" or "you." We use the categories "first person," "second person," and "third person" when discussing the pronouns and other forms that speakers normally use when they refer to themselves, to those they are speaking to, and to others.
* **First person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to himself. English uses the pronouns "I" and "we." (Also: me, my, mine; us, our, ours)
* **Second person** - This is how a speaker normally refers to the person or people he is speaking to. English uses the pronoun "you." (Also: your, yours)
* **Third person** - This is how a speaker refers to someone else. English uses the pronouns "he," "she," "it" and "they." (Also: him, his, her, hers, its; them, their, theirs) Noun phrases like "the man" or "the woman" are also third person.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Sometimes in the Bible a speaker used the third person to refer to himself or to the people he was speaking to. Readers might think that the speaker was referring to someone else. They might not understand that he meant "I" or "you."
### Examples from the Bible
Sometimes people used the third person instead of "I" or "me" to refer to themselves.
>But David said to Saul, "<u>Your servant</u> used to keep <u>his</u> father's sheep." (1 Samuel 17:34 ULB)
David referred to himself in the third person as "your servant" and "his." He was calling himself Saul's servant in order to show his humility before Saul.
>Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said,
>"... Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>?"" (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)
God referred to himself in the third person with the words "God's" and "him." He did this to emphasize that he is God, and he is powerful.
Sometimes people use the third person instead of "you" or "your" to refer to the person or people they are speaking to.
>Abraham answered and said, "Look, I have undertaken to speak to <u>my Lord</u>, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULB)
Abraham was speaking to the Lord, and referred to the Lord as "My Lord" rather than as "you." He did this to show his humility before God.
>Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>his</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others. (Philippians 2:4 ULB)
After writing "each of you," Paul used the third person "his" instead of "your" to refer to the same people.
### Translation Strategies
If using the third person to mean "I" or "you" would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, consider these strategies.
1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."
1. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."
* **But David said to Saul, "<u>Your servant</u> used to keep <u>his</u> father's sheep."** (1 Samuel 17:34)
* But David said to Saul, "<u>I, your servant</u>, used to keep <u>my</u> father's sheep."
1. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.
* **Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like <u>God's</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>him</u>?** (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)
* Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like <u>mine</u>? Can you thunder with a voice like <u>me</u>?"
* **Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>his</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others.** (Philippians 2:4 ULB)
* Let <u>each of you</u> look not only to <u>your</u> own interests, but also to the interests of others.

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What are first, second, and third person, and how do I translate when a third person form does not refer to the third person?

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First, Second, or Third Person

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### Description
Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even to relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, goodness, health, weight, creation, injury, unity, friendship, health, and reason.
Using abstract nouns allows people to express thoughts about ideas in fewer words than if they did not have those nouns. It is a way of giving names to actions or qualities so that people can talk about them as though they were things. It is like a short-cut in language. For example, in languages that use abstract nouns, people can say, "I believe in the forgiveness of sin." But if the language did not have the two abstract nouns "forgiveness" and "sin," then they would have to make a longer sentence to express the same meaning. They would have to say, for example, "I believe that God is willing to forgive people after they have sinned," using verb phrases instead of nouns for those ideas.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
The Bible that you translate from may use abstract nouns to express certain ideas. Your language might not use abstract nouns for some of those ideas; instead, it might use phrases to express those ideas. Those phrases will use other kinds of words such as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs to express the meaning of the abstract noun.
### Examples from the Bible
>From <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings. (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)
The abstract noun "childhood" refers to when someone is a child.
>Now <u>godliness</u> with <u>contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)
The abstract nouns "godliness" and "contentment" refer to being godly and content.
The abstract noun "gain" refers to something that benefits or helps someone.
>Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULB)
The abstract noun "salvation" here refers to being saved.
>The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be. (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)
The abstract noun "slowness" refers how slowly something is done.
>He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)
The abstract noun "purposes" refers to the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them.
### Translation Strategies
If an abstract noun would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:
1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun..
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.
* **From <u>childhood</u> you have known the sacred writings.** (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)
* Ever since <u>you were a child</u> you have known the sacred writings.
* **Now <u>godliness with contentment</u> is great <u>gain</u>.** (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)
* Now <u>being godly</u> and <u>content</u> is very <u>beneficial</u>.
* Now we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>are godly</u> and <u>content</u>.
* Now we <u>benefit</u> greatly when we <u>honor and obey God</u> and when we are <u>happy with what we have</u>.
* **Today <u>salvation</u> has come to this house ....** (Luke 19:9 ULB)
* Today the people in this house <u>have been saved</u> ...
* Today God <u>has saved</u> the people in this house ...
* **The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>slowness</u> to be.** (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)
* The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider <u>moving slowly</u> to be.
* **He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the <u>purposes</u> of the heart.** (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)
* He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal <u>the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them</u>.

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What are abstract nouns and how do I deal with them in my translation?

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Abstract Nouns

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### Description
Some languages have both active and passive forms sentences. In **active** sentences, the subject does the action. In **passive** sentences, the action is done to the subject. Passive sentences do not always tell who did the action. Here are some examples with their subjects underlined:
* ACTIVE: <u>My father</u> built the house in 2010.
* PASSIVE: <u>The house</u> was built by my father in 2010.
* PASSIVE: <u>The house</u> was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)
### Reasons this is a translation issue
All languages have active forms. Some languages have passive forms, and some do not. 
The passive form is not used for the same purposes in all of the languages that have it.
#### Purposes for the passive
* The speaker is talking about the person or thing the action was done to, not about the person who did the action.
* The speaker does not want to tell who did the action. 
* The speaker does not know who did the action.
### Translation principles Regarding the Passive
* Translators whose language does not use passive forms will need to find another way to express the idea. 
* Translators whose language has passive forms will need to understand why the passive is used in a particular sentence in the Bible and decide whether or not to use a passive form for that purpose in his translation of the sentence.
### Examples from the Bible
>Then their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king's servants <u>were killed</u>, and your servant Uriah the Hittite <u>was killed</u> too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULB)
This means that the enemy's shooters shot and killed some of the king's servants, including Uriah. The point is what happened to the king's servants and Uriah, not who shot them. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on the king's servants and Uriah.
>In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal <u>was broken down</u>.(Judges 6:28 ULB)
The men of the town saw what had happened to the altar of Baal, but they did not know who broke it down. The purpose of the passive form here is to communicate this event from the perspective of the men of the town.
>It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea. (Luke 17:2 ULB)
This describes a situation in which a person ends up in the sea with a millstone around his neck. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on what happens to this person. Who does these things to the person is not important.
### Translation Strategies
If you decide that it is better to translate without a passive form, here are some strategies you might consider.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who or what did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who or what did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like "they" or  "people" or  "someone." 
1. Use a different verb.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
* <u>The king's servants gave</u> Jeremiah a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.
1. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like "they" or  "people" or  "someone." 
* **It would be better for him if a millstone <u>were put</u> around his neck and he <u>were thrown</u> into the sea.** (Luke 17:2 ULB)
* It would be better for him if <u>they were to put</u> a millstone around his neck and <u>throw</u> him into the sea.
* It would be better for him if <u>someone were to put</u> a heavy stone around his neck and <u>throw</u> him into the sea.
1. Use a different verb in an active sentence. 
* **A loaf of bread <u>was given</u> him every day from the street of the bakers.** (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
* He <u>received</u> a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.

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What do active and passive mean, and how do I translate passive sentences?

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Active or Passive

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### Description
An apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a speaker turns his attention away from his listeners and speaks to someone or something that he knows cannot hear him. He does this to tell his listeners his message or feelings about that person or thing in a very strong way.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Many languages do not use apostrophe, and readers could be confused by it. They may wonder who the speaker is talking to, or think that the speaker is crazy to talk to things or people who cannot hear.
### Examples from the Bible
When King Saul was killed on Mount Gilboa, David sang a sad song about it. He showed how sad he was by telling the mountains that he wanted them to have no dew or rain.
><u>Mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>you</u>. (2 Samuel 1:21 ULB)
When a king broke God's law by building a new altar and offering sacrifices on it, a man of God went to the king to rebuke him. The man told how God would punish the king by speaking to the altar as if the altar could hear him, but he really wanted the king to hear him.
>He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, ... on <u>you</u> they will burn human bones.' " (1 Kings 13:2 ULB)
When Jesus was telling his disciples and a group of Pharisees about the people of Jerusalem, he showed his sadness for the people of Jerusalem by speaking directly to city of Jerusalem as though its people could hear him. But he really wanted the disciples and the Pharisees to hear him.
><u>Jerusalem, Jerusalem</u>, who kills the prophets and stones those sent to <u>you</u>. How often I desired to gather <u>your children</u> the way a hen gathers her brood under her wings, but <u>you</u> did not desire this. See, <u>your house</u> is abandoned. I say to <u>you, you</u> will not see me until <u>you</u> say, 'Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord.'"(Luke 13:34 ULB)
>
### Translation Strategies
If apostrophe would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option.
1. If this way of speaking would be confusing to your people, let the speaker continue speaking to the people that are listening to him as he tells <u>them</u> his message or feelings about the people or thing that cannot hear him.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If this way of speaking would be confusing to your people, let the speaker continue speaking to the people that are listening to him as he tells <u>them</u> his message or feelings about the people or thing that cannot hear him.
* **He cried against the altar by the word of Yahweh: <u>"Altar</u>, <u>altar</u>! This is what Yahweh says, 'See, ... on you they will burn human bones.' "** (1 Kings 13:2 ULB)
* By the word of the Lord, he said this about the altar: "This is what Yahweh says <u>about this altar.</u> 'See, ... they will burn people's bones on <u>it</u>.' "
* **<u>Mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>you</u>.** (2 Samuel 1:21 ULB)
* <u>As for these mountains of Gilboa</u>, let there not be dew or rain on <u>them</u>.

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Apostrophe

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### Description
Normally statements are used to give information. But sometimes they are used in the Bible for other functions.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Some languages would not use a statement for some of the functions that statements are used for in the Bible.
### Examples from the Bible
#### Statements are normally used to give information.
>There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULB)
All of the sentences in John 1:6-8 above are statements, and their function is to give information.
####A statement can also be used as a **command** to tell someone what to do.
>He commanded them, saying, "This is what <u>you must do</u>. A third of you who come on the Sabbath <u>will keep watch</u> over the king's house, and a third <u>will be</u> at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse." (2 Kings 11:5-6 ULB)
In the examples above, the high priest used a statement with the verb "must" and then statements with the verb "will" to tell people what to do.
####A statement can also be used to give instructions.
>She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULB)
The angel was not simply telling Joseph about something Joseph would do in the future; he was telling Joseph what he needed to do.
####A statement can also be used to make a request.
>Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>." (Matthew 8:2 ULB)
The man with leprosy was not just saying what Jesus was able to do. He was also asking Jesus to heal him.
####A statement can also be used to perform something.
><u>Cursed is the ground</u> because of you. (Genesis 3:17 ULB)
By telling Adam that the ground was cursed because of him, God actually cursed it.
>Seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralyzed man, "Son, <u>your sins are forgiven</u>." (Mark 2:5 ULB)
By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, Jesus forgave the man's sins.
### Translation Strategies
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _use a sentence type_ that would express that function.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _add a sentence type_ that would express that function.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, _use a verb form_ that would express that function.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a sentence type that would express that function.
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULB) The phrase "you will call his name Jesus" is an instruction. It can be translated using the sentence type of a normal instruction.
* She will give birth to a son. <u>Name him Jesus</u>, because he will save his people from their sins.
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, add a sentence type that would express that function.
* **Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean</u>.** (Matthew 8:2 ULB) The function of "you can make me clean" is to make a request. In addition to the statement, a request can be added.
* Lord, if you are willing, <u>you can make me clean. Please do so.</u>
* Lord, if you are willing, <u>please make me clean. I know you can do so.</u>
1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, use a verb form that would express that function.
* **She will give birth to a son, and <u>you will call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.** (Matthew 1:21 ULB)
* She will give birth to a son, and <u>you must call his name Jesus</u>, for he will save his people from their sins.
* **Son, your sins are forgiven.** (Mark 2:5 ULB)
* Son, I forgive your sins.
* Son, God has forgiven your sins.

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Statements - Other Uses

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### Description
In some languages, phrases that modify a noun can be used with the noun for two different purposes. They can either distinguish the noun from other similar items, or they can give more information about the noun. That information could be new to the reader, or a reminder about something the reader might already know. Other languages use modifying phrases with a noun only for distinguishing the noun from other similar things. When people who speak these languages hear a modifying phrase with a noun, they assume that its function is to distinguish one item from another similar item.
Some languages use a comma to mark the difference between making a distinction between similar items and gving more information about an item. Without the comma, the sentence below communicates that it is making a distinction:
* Mary gave some of the food to <u>her sister who was very thankful</u>.
* If her sister was usually thankful, the phrase "who was thankful" could **distinguish this sister** of Mary's from another sister who was not usually thankful.
With the comma, the sentence is giving more information:
* Mary gave some of the food to <u>her sister, who was very thankful</u>.
* This same phrase can be used give us more information about Mary's sister. It tells us about **how Mary's sister responded** when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish one sister from another sister.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* Many source languages of the Bible use phrases that modify a noun **both** for distinguishing the noun from another similar item **and also** for giving more information about the noun. The translator must be careful to understand which meaning the author intended in each case.
* Some languages use phrases that modify a noun **only** for distinguishing the noun from another similar item. When translating a phrase that is used for giving more information, people who speak these languages will need to separate the phrase from the noun. Otherwise, people who read it or hear it will think that the phrase is meant to distinguish the noun from other similar items.
### Examples from the Bible
##### Words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items
These usually do not cause a problem in translation.
>The curtain is to separate <u>the holy place</u> from <u>the most holy place</u>. (Exodus 26:33 ULB)
The words "holy" and "most holy" distinguish two different places from each other and from any other place.
>A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to <u>the woman who bore him</u>. (Proverbs 17:25 ULB)
The phrase "who bore him" distinguishes which woman the son is bitterness to. He is not bitterness to all women, but to his mother.
##### Words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item
These are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.
><u>Your righteous judgments</u> are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULB)
The word "righteous" simply reminds us that God's judgments are righteous. It does not distinguish his righteous judgements from his unrighteous judgements, because all of his judgments are righteous.
>How can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17 ULB)
The phrase "who is ninety years old" is the reason that Abraham did not think that Sarah could bear a son. He was not distinguishing one woman named Sarah from another woman named Sarah who was a different age, and he was not telling anyone something new about her age. He simply did not think that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
>I will wipe away mankind <u>whom I have created from the surface of the earth</u>. (Genesis 6:7 ULB)
The phrase "whom I have created from the surface of the earth" is a reminder of the relationship between God and mankind. It is the reason God had the right to wipe away mankind. There is not another mankind.
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand the purpose of a phrase with a noun, then consider keeping the phrase and the noun together. For languages that use words or phrases with a noun only to distinguish one item from another, here are some strategies for translating phrases that are used to inform or remind.
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
* **I hate those who serve <u>worthless</u> idols** (Psalm 31:6 ULB) - By saying "worthless idols," David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.
* <u>Because</u> idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.
* **Your <u>righteous</u> judgments are good.** (Psalm 119:39 ULB)
* Your judgments are good <u>because</u> they are righteous.
* **How can Sarah, <u>who is ninety years old</u>, bear a son?** (Genesis 17:17-18 ULB) - The phrase "who is ninety years old" is a reminder of Sarah's age. It tells why Abraham was asking the question. He did not expect that a woman who was that old could bear a child.
* Can Sarah bear a son <u>even when</u> she is ninety years old?
* **I will call on Yahweh, <u>who is worthy to be praised</u>.** (2 Samuel 22:4 ULB) - There is only one Yahweh. The phrase "who is worthy to be praised" gives a reason for calling on Yahweh.
* I will call on Yahweh, <u>because</u> he is worthy to be praised.
1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information.
* **You are my Son, <u>whom I love</u>. I am pleased with you.** (Luke 3:22 ULB)
* You are my Son. <u>I love you</u> and I am pleased with you.
* <u>Receiving my love</u>, you are my Son. I am pleased with you.

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When a phrase is used with a noun, what is the difference between phrases that distinguish the noun from others and phrases that simply inform or remind?

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Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding

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### Description
Negative words are words that have in them the meaning "not." Examples are "no," "not," "none," "no one," "nothing," "nowhere," "never," "nor," "neither," "unless," "except," and "without." Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean "not" such as the underlined parts of these words: "<u>un</u>happy," "<u>im</u>possible," and "use<u>less</u>."
A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of "not."
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Double negatives mean very different things in different languages.
* In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative is used to create a negative sentence. The following Spanish sentence *No ví a nadie* is literally, "I did not see no one." It has both the word 'no' next to the verb and 'nadie,' which means "no one." The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, "I did not see anyone."
* In some languages, a double negative can be used simply to correct a misunderstanding that the listener might have about something that already includes a negative. So "He is not unintelligent" means simply that if the listener thinks that the man is unintelligent, then the listener is wrong. It does not indicate how intelligent the man is.
* In some languages a double negative can be used to create a weak positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is somewhat intelligent."
* In some languages, a double negative can be used to create a strong positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is very intelligent."
To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know both what a double negative means in a particular sentence and how to express the same idea in your language.
### Examples from the Bible
> For we do <u>not</u> have a high priest who can<u>not</u> feel sympathy for our weaknesses. (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)
By using the double negative here, the writer showed that our high priest can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.
> ... I do <u>not</u> want you to be <u>un</u>informed. (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)
By using the double negative, Paul showed that he wanted the people to be informed.
>All things were made through him, and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULB)
By using a double negative, John emphasized that the Son of God created everything.
>We did this <u>not</u> because we have <u>no</u> authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you. (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)
People could think that the reason that Paul and those with him worked hard was that they did not have authority to expect the people to meet their needs. Paul denied that. They had authority, but they had other reasons for working so hard.
### Translation Strategies
If double negatives are natural and are used to create a positive sentence in your language, consider using them. If not, here is another option.
1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.
* **For we do <u>not</u> have a high priest who can<u>not</u> feel sympathy for our weaknesses.** (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)
* For we have a high priest who can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.
* **... I do <u>not</u> want you to be <u>un</u>informed.** (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)
* ... I want you to be informed.
* **All things were made through him, and <u>without</u> him there was <u>not</u> one thing made that has been made.** (John 1:3 ULB)
* All things were made through him. He made absolutely everything that has been made.
* **We did this <u>not</u> because we have <u>no</u> authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you.** (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)
* Though we have authority, we did this in orer to be an example to you.

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Double Negatives

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### Description
We are using the word "doublet" to refer to two words or very short phrases that mean the same thing or very close to the same thing and that are used together. Often they are joined with the word "and." Often they are used to emphasize or intensify the idea expressed by the two words.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
In some languages people do not use doublets. Or they may use doublets, but only in certain situations, so a doublet might not make sense in their language in some verses. In either case, translators may need to find some other way to express the meaning expressed by the doublet.
### Examples from the Bible
The phrases "old" and "advanced in years" mean the same thing. Together they mean that David was very old.
>... King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u>.... (1 Kings 1:1 ULB)
The phrases "more righteous" and "better" mean the same thing. Together they mean that the two men were much more righteous than the one who attacked them.
>... he attacked two men <u>more righteous</u> and <u>better</u> than himself ... (1 Kings 2:32 ULB)
The phrases "without blemish" and "without spot" mean the same thing. Together they mean that Jesus was like a lamb that did not have any blemish—not even one.
>... who was like a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>. (1 Peter 1:19 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
If a doublet would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using one. If not, consider these strategies.
1. Translate only one of the phrases.
1. If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words and add a word that intensifies it such as "very" or "great" or "many."
1. If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language's ways of doing that.
### Translation Strategies Applied
1. Translate only one of the phrase.
* **... he attacked two men <u>more righteous</u> and <u>better</u> than himself ... (1 Kings 2:32 ULB)** (Daniel 2:9 ULB)
* ... he attacked two men who were <u>more righteous than himself ...
1. If the doublet is used to intensify the meaning, translate one of the words and add a word that intensifies it such as "very" or "great" or "many."
* **... King David was <u>old</u> and <u>advanced in years</u> ...** (1 Kings 1:1 ULB)
* ... King David was <u>very old</u> ...
1. If the doublet is used to intensify or emphasize the meaning, use one of your language's ways of doing that.
* **... a lamb <u>without blemish</u> and <u>without spot</u>...** (1 Peter 1:19 ULB)
* ... a lamb <u>without any blemish at all</u> ...

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What are doublets and how can I translate them?

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### Description
Ellipsis is the omission of words that would normally be needed to make a sentence complete, but they are understood either by convention or because they were already used in a previous phrase.
Here are two examples of elliptical sentences whose missing words are understood by convention. English speakers normally use the shorter forms.
* "Fire when ready" means "Fire when <u>you are</u> ready."
* "Back to the drawing board" means "<u>We need to go</u> back to the drawing board."
Here are three examples of elliptical sentences whose missing words were already used in a previous phrase.
* "I drank water, and Bob milk" means "I drank water, and Bob <u>drank</u> milk.
* "I drank water, not milk" means "I drank water; <u>I did</u> not <u>drink</u> milk.
* "I drank water, and Tom did, too" means "I drank water, and Tom <u>drank water</u>, too."
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Readers who see incomplete sentences or phrases may not know what the missing information is if they do not use ellipsis in their language.
### Examples from the Bible
In all of these examples, the missing words are understood because they were in the first phrase.
>For Adam was formed first, <u>then Eve</u>. (1 Timothy 2:13 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "then Eve was formed."
>... his works were evil and <u>his brother's righteous</u>. (1 John 3:12 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "his brother's works were righteous."
>So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, <u>nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous</u>. (Psalm 1:5)
The underlind phrase above means "sinners will not stand in the assembly of the righteous."
>He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and <u>Sirion like a young ox</u>. (Psalm 29:6 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "he makes Sirion skip like a young ox."
> Then Saul said to his armor bearer, "Draw your sword and thrust me through with it. ..." <u>But his armor bearer would not</u>, for he was very afraid. (1 Samuel 31:4 ULB)
The underlined phrase above means, "But his armor bearer would not draw his sword and thrust Saul through with it."
### Translation Strategies
If ellipsis would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:
1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.
* **... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, <u>nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous</u>.** (Psalm 1:5)
* ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor <u>will</u> sinners <u>stand</u> in the assembly of the righteous.
* ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and sinners <u>will not stand</u> in the assembly of the righteous.
* **He makes Lebanon skip like a calf <u>and Sirion like a young ox</u>.** (Psalm 29:6)
* He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and <u>he makes</u> Sirion <u>skip</u> like a young ox.

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Ellipsis

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### Description
A euphemism is a mild or polite way of referring to something that is unpleasant, embarrassing, or socially unacceptable, such as death or activities usually done in private.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Different languages use different euphemisms. If the target language does not use the same euphemism as in the source language, readers may not understand what it means, and they may think that the writer means only what the words literally say.
### Examples from the Bible
The phrase "to cover his feet" is a polite way of speaking about what one does when he uses the toilet.
>... where there was a cave. Saul went inside <u>to cover his feet</u>. (1 Samuel 24:3 ULB)
The phrase "fallen" is a polite way of referring to dying in battle.
>... they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa. (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULB)
The phrase "know a man" is a polite way of referring to having sexual relations with a man.
>Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since I have not <u>known any man</u>?” (Luke 1:34 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
If the euphemism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:
1. Use a euphemism from your own culture.
1. State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use a euphemism from your own culture.
* **... where there was a cave. Saul went inside <u>to cover his feet</u>.** (1 Samuel 24:3 ULB) - Some languages might use euphemisms like these:
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to releave himself</u>.
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to dig a hole</u>.
* ... where there was a cave. Saul went into the cave <u>to have some time alone</u>.
* **Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since <u>I have not known any man</u>?”** (Luke 1:34 ULB)
* Mary said to the angel, “How will this happen, since <u>I have not slept with a man</u>?” - (This is the euphemism used in the original Greek)
1. State the information plainly without a euphemism if it would not be offensive.
* **... they found Saul and his sons <u>fallen</u> on Mount Gilboa.** (1 Chronicles 10:8 ULB)
* ... they found Saul and his sons <u>dead</u> on Mount Gilboa.

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### Description
In the Bible, events are not always told in the order in which they occurred. Sometimes the author wanted to discuss something that happened at an earlier time than the event that he just talked about. This can be confusing to the reader.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.
### Examples from the Bible
>... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized.... (Luke 3:19-21 ULB)
Jesus was baptized by John. The verses above could sound like John baptized Jesus after John was locked up in prison, but John baptized Jesus before John was locked up in prison.
>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets. ... But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
This could sound like Joshua gave the order not to shout after the army had already started their march, but he had given that order before they started marching.
>Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
This could sound like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, but the seals that lock the scroll must be broken before the scroll can be unrolled.
### Translation Strategies
1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using one of them.
1. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that. (See: the section on Aspect on [Verbs](../figs-verbs/01.md))
1. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occurred, consider reordering the events so they they are in that order. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6). (See: [Verse Bridges](../translate-versebridge/01.md))
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before the one just mentioned, consider using one of them.
* **... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, that Jesus also was baptized....** (Luke 3:29-21 ULB)
* ... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now <u>before John was put in prison,</u> when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized....
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
* Who is worthy to open the scroll <u>after</u> breaking its seals?
1. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that.
* **<sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... <sup>10</sup>But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
* <sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...<sup>10</sup>But Joshua <u>had commanded</u> the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout.
1. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occur, consider reordering the events. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6).
* **<sup>8</sup>Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... <sup>10</sup>But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout."** (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
* <sup>8-10</sup>Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout." Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets....
* **Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?** (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
* Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?

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### Description
Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULB and UDB, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people say helps us understand what feelings they were expressing.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Languages have different ways of showing that a sentence communicates strong emotion.
### Examples from the Bible
#### Some exclamations have no special words that show the feeling.
>Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULB)
In the sentence above, the speakers were terribly afraid and probably shouted or cried out what they were saying.
>When the demon had been driven out, the mute man spoke. The crowds were astonished and said, "This has never been seen before in Israel!" (Matthew 9:33 ULB)
In the example above the speakers were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before. Their voices probably showed how they felt.
####Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling.
><u>Oh</u>, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "oh" shows the speaker's amazement.
>Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "Ah" shows that Gideon was very frightened.
####Some exclamations begin with a question word, even though they are not questions.
><u>How</u> unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
In the sentence above, the word "How" shows that the speaker is amazed at God's judgments.
####Some exclamations do not have a main verb.
>You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULB)
The exclamation above does not have a verb. It shows that the speaker is disgusted with the person he is speaking to.
### Translation Strategies
1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is "is" or "are."
1. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling.
1. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
1. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
1. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is "is" or "are."
* **You worthless person!** (Matthew 5:22 ULB)
* You <u>are</u> such a worthless person!
* **Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God!** (Romans 11:33 ULB)
* Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God <u>are</u> so deep!
1. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling. The word "wow" below shows that they were astonished. The expression "Oh no" shows that something terrible or frightening has happened.
* **They were extremely astonished, saying, "He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak."** (Mark 7:37 ULB)
* They were extremely astonished, saying, "<u>Wow</u>! He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak."
* **Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* __Oh no__, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
1. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
* **<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* Lord Yahweh, <u>what will happen to me</u>? For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"
* <u>Help</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!
1. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
* **How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering!** (Romans 11:33 ULB)
* His judgements are <u>so</u> unsearchable and his ways are <u>far</u> beyond discovering!
1. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.
* **Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"** (Judges 6:22 ULB)
* Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. <u>Gideon was terrified</u> and said, "<u>Ah</u>, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22 ULB)

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### Description
Some languages have more than one form of "we:" an **inclusive** form that means "I and you" and an **exclusive** form that means "I and someone else but <u>not you</u>." The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for "us," "our," "ours," and "ourselves." Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these.
See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is talking to. The yellow highlight shows who the inclusive "we" and the exclusive "we" refer to.
![](https://cdn.door43.org/ta/jpg/vocabulary/we_us_inclusive.jpg)
![](https://cdn.door43.org/ta/jpg/vocabulary/we_us_exclusive.jpg)
### Reasons this is a translation issue
The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for "we." Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form of to use.
### Examples from the Bible
>They said, “<u>We</u> have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless <u>we</u> go and buy food for all these people.” (Luke 9:13 ULB)
In the first clause, the disciples are telling Jesus how much food they have among them, so this "we" could be the inclusive form or the exclusive form. In the second clause, the disciples are talking about some of them going to buy food, so that "we" would be the exclusive form, since Jesus would not go to buy food.
>... <u>we</u> have seen it, and <u>we</u> bear witness to it. <u>We</u> are announcing to you the eternal life.... (1 John 1:2 ULB)
John is telling people who have not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles have seen. So languages that have an exclusive form of "we" would use it in this verse.
>... the shepherds said one to each other, "Let <u>us</u> now go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to <u>us</u>." (Luke 2:15 ULB)
The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said "us," they were <u>including</u> the people they were speaking to - one another.
>Now one day he got into a boat with his disciples, and he said to them, "Let <u>us</u> go over to the other side of the lake." They set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULB)
When Jesus said "us," he was referring to himself and to the disciples he was speaking to, so this would be the inclusive form.

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Exclusive and Inclusive "We"

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### Description
An extended metaphor occurs when someone speaks of a situation as if it were a different situation. He does this in order to effectively describe the first situation by implying that in some important way it is similar to the other. The second situation has multiple **images** of people, things, and actions that represent those in the first situation.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not realize that the images represent other things.
* People may not be familiar with the things that are used as images.
* Extended metaphors are often so profound that it would be impossible for a translator to show all of the meaning generated by the metaphor.
### Translation Principles
* Make the meaning of the extended metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning more clear to the target audience than it was to the original audience.
* When someone uses an extended metaphor, the images are an important part of what he is trying to say.
* If the target audience is not familiar with some of the images, you will need to find some way of helping them understand the images so they can understand the whole extended metaphor.
### Examples from the Bible
In Psalm 23:1-4, the writer says that God's concern and care for his people can be pictured as the care that a shepherd has for his flock of sheep. Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
><sup>1</sup>Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing.
><sup>2</sup>He <u>makes me</u> to lie down in green pastures;
>he <u>leads me</u> beside tranquil water.
><sup>3</sup>He <u>brings back</u> my life;
>he <u>guides me</u> along right paths for his name's sake.
><sup>4</sup>Even though I walk through a valley of darkest shadow,
>I will not fear harm since you are with me;
>your rod and your staff comfort me. (ULB)
In Isaiah 5:1-7, Isaiah presents God's disappointment with his people as the disappointment that a farmer would feel if his vineyard only produced bad fruit. Farmers care for their gardens, but if they only produce bad fruit, farmers eventually stop caring for them. Verses 1 through 6 appear to be simply about a farmer and his vineyard, but verse 7 makes it clear that it is about God and his people.
><sup>1</sup>... My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
><sup>2</sup>He spaded it, removed the stones, and planted it with an excellent kind of vine.
>He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced wild grapes.
><sup>3</sup>So now, inhabitant of Jerusalem and men of Judah;
>judge between me and my vineyard.
><sup>4</sup>What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it?
>When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes?
><sup>5</sup>Now I will tell you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge,
>I will turn it into a pasture, I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on.
><sup>6</sup>I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. Instead, briers and thorns will spring up.
>I will also command the clouds not to rain on it.
><sup>7</sup>For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel,
>and the man of Judah his pleasant planting;
>he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help. (ULB)
### Translation Strategies
Consider using the same extended metaphor if your readers will understand it in the same way the original readers would have understood it. If not, here are some other strategies:
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using "like" or "as." It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
1. If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
1. If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using "like" or "as." It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
* **Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. He makes <u>me</u> to lie down in green pastures; <u>he leads me</u> beside tranquil water.** (Psalm 23:1-2 ULB)
* Yahweh is <u>like</u> a shepherd to me, so I will lack nothing. <u>Like</u> a shepherd who makes his sheep lie down in green pastures and leads them by peaceful waters, Yahweh helps me to rest peacefully.
1. If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
* **My well beloved had a <u>vineyard</u> on a very fertile hill. He <u>spaded</u> it, removed the stones, and planted it with an <u>excellent kind of vine</u>. He built <u>a tower</u> in the middle of it, and also built a <u>winepress</u>. He waited for it to produce grapes, but it only produced <u>wild grapes</u>.** (Isaiah 5:1-2 ULB)
* My well beloved had a <u>grapevine garden</u> on a very fertile hill. He <u>dug up the ground</u> and removed the stones, and planted it with <u>the best grapevines</u>. He built a <u>watchtower</u> in the middle of it, and also built <u>a tank where he could crush the juice out of the grapes</u>. He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced <u>wild grapes that were not good for making wine</u>."
1. If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
* **Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing.** (Psalm 23:1 ULB)
* Yahweh <u>cares for me</u> like a shepherd who cares for his sheep, so I will lack nothing.
* **For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>is</u> the house of Israel, and the man of Judah his pleasant planting; he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, a shout for help.** (Isaiah 5:7 ULB)
* For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts <u>represents</u> the house of Israel, and the men of Judah <u>are like</u> his pleasant planting; he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing; for righteousness, but, instead, there was a cry for help. <u>So as a farmer stops caring for a vineyard that produces bad fruit, <u>Yahweh will stop protecting Israel and Judah.</u>

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What is an extended metaphor?

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Extended Metaphor

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### Description
When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is **explicit information**.
The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand what he says. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called **assumed knowledge**.
The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. Information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly is **implicit information.**
Often, the audience understands this **implicit information** by combining what they already know (**assumed knowledge**) with what the speaker tells them directly (**explicit information**).
### Reasons this is a translation issue
All three kinds of information (assumed knowledge, explicit information, and implicit information) are part of the speaker's message. If the audience does not have the knowledge that the speaker assumes they have, they will have trouble understanding the whole message. They may understand some of the explicit information, but they will have trouble learning the implicit information.
The authors of the Bible books wrote for particular audiences who lived in particular places long ago. And the speakers in the Bible spoke to particular audiences who lived long ago. Modern readers do not know everything that the original audiences knew; they lack some of the assumed information, and this makes it hard for them to understand the whole message.
### Examples from the Bible
>Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:20 ULB)
Jesus did not say what foxes and birds use holes and nests for, because he assumed that the scribe would have known that foxes sleep in holes in the ground and birds sleep in their nests. This is **assumed knowledge**.
Jesus did not directly say here "I am the Son of Man" but, if the scribe did not already know it, then that fact would be **implicit information** that he could learn because Jesus referred to himself that way. Also, Jesus did not state explicitly that he travelled a lot and did not have a house that he slept in every night. That is **implicit information** that the scribe could learn when Jesus said that he had nowhere to lay his head.
>Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the <u>day of judgment</u> than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULB)
Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all **assumed knowledge**.
An important piece of **implicit information** here is that because the people he was speaking to did not repent, they would be judged more severely than the people of Tyre and Sidon would be judged.
>Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands when they eat</u>. (Matthew 15:2 ULB)
One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating. People thought that in order to be righteous, they had to follow all the traditions of the elders. This was **assumed knowledge** that the Pharisees who were speaking to Jesus expected him to know. By saying this, they were accusing his disciples of not following the traditions, and thus not being righteous. This is **implicit information** that they wanted him to understand from what they said.
### Translation Strategies
If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the full message (with the explicit and implicit information) then it is good to leave the assumed knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because they lack the assumed knowledge, then follow one of these strategies:
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.
1. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.
* **Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:20 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that the foxes slept in their holes and birds slept in their nests.
* Jesus said to him, "Foxes <u>have holes to live in</u>, and the birds of the sky <u>have nests to live in</u>, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep."
* **But it will be more tolerable for <u>Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you.** (Matthew 11:22 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very, very wicked. This can be stated explicitly.
* But it will be more tolerable for <u>those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked</u>, at the day of judgment than for you.
* But it will be more tolerable for those <u>wicked cities Tyre and Sidon</u> at the day of judgment than for you.
* **Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not wash their hands</u> when they eat.** (Matthew 15:2 ULB) - Assumed knowledge was that one of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating, which they must do to be righteous. It was not to remove germs from their hands to avoid sickness, as a modern reader might think.
* Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For <u>they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual of righteousness</u> when they eat.
1. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.
* **Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head."** (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULB) - Implicit information is that Jesus himself is the Son of Man. Other implicit information is that if the scribe wanted to follow Jesus, he would have to live like Jesus without a house.
* Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but <u>I, the Son of Man</u>, have <u>no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live</u>."
* **If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you** (Matthew 11:22 ULB) - Implicit information is that the people of Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that God would not only judge the people; he would punish them. These things can be made explicit.
* If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, <u>God will punish you more severely</u> than Tyre and Sidon, <u>those cities whose people were very wicked.</u>
* If the mighty deeds which were done in you had been done in <u>the wicked cities of Tyre and Sidon</u>, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, <u>God will punish them less severely<u> than he will punish you.
Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer says, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state some things explicitly in the translation that the original speaker or writer left unstated or implicit.

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How can I be sure that my translation communicates the assumed knowledge and implicit information along with the explicit information of the original message?

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Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information

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### Description
Some languages have ways of saying things that are natural for them but sound strange when translated into other languages. One of the reasons for this is that some languages say things explicitly that the other languages would leave as implicit information.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
If you translate all of the explicit information from the source language into the target language explicitly, it could sound foreign, unnatural, or perhaps even unintelligent if the target language would not make that information explicit. Instead, it is best to leave that kind of information implicit in the target language.
### Examples from the Bible
><u>And</u> Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to burn it with fire</u>. (Judges 9:52 ESV)
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to start most sentences with a conjunction such as “and” to show the connection between sentences. In English, it is ungrammatical to do so, is quite tiresome for the English reader, and gives the impression that the author was uneducated. In English, it is best to leave the idea of connection between sentences implicit in most cases and not translate the conjunction explicitly.
In Biblical Hebrew, it was normal to say that something was burned with fire. In English, the idea of fire is included in the action of burning, and so it is unnatural to state both ideas explicitly. It is enough to say that something was burned and leave the idea of fire implicit.
>The centurion <u>answered and said</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof." (Matthew 8:8 ULB)
In the biblical languages, it was normal to introduce direct speech with two verbs of speaking. One verb indicated the mode of address, and the other introduced the words of the speaker. English speakers do not do this, so it is very unnatural and confusing to use two verbs. For the English speaker, the idea of speaking is included in the idea of answering. Using two verbs in English implies two separate speeches, rather than just one. So in English, it is better to use only one verb of speaking.
### Translation Strategies
If the explicit information of the source language sounds natural in the target language, then translate it as explicit information. If it does not sound natural, you can follow this strategy.
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. If the explicit information does not sound natural in the target language or seems unnecessary or confusing, leave the explicit information implicit. Only do this if the reader can understand this information from the context. You can test this by asking the reader a question about the passage.
* **And Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower to burn it with fire.** (Judges 9:52 ESV)
* Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to burn it</u>.
* Abimelech came to the tower and fought against it and drew near to the door of the tower <u>to set it on fire</u>.
* **The centurion answered and said, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof."** (Matthew 8:8 ULB)
* The centurion <u>answered</u>, "Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof."

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What can I do if some of the explicit information seems confusing, unnatural, or unnecessary in our language?

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When to Make Explicit Information Implicit

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### Description
Sometimes it is better not to state assumed knowledge or implicit information explicitly. This page gives some direction about when not to do this.
### Translation principles
* If a speaker or author intentionally left something unclear, do not try to make it more clear.
* If the original audience did not understand what the speaker meant, do not make it so clear that your readers would find it strange that the original audience did not understand.
* If you need to explicitly state some assumed knowledge or implicit information, try to do it in a way that it does not make your readers think that the original audience needed to be told those things.
* Do not make it explicit if it throws the message out of focus and leads the readers to forget what the main point is.
* Do not make assumed knowledge or implicit information explicit if your readers already understand it.
### Examples from the Bible
>Out of the eater was something to eat;
>out of the strong was something sweet. (Judges 14:14 ULB)
This was a riddle. Samson purposely said this in a way that it would be hard for his enemies to know what it meant. Do not make it clear that the eater and the strong thing was a lion and that the sweet thing to eat was honey.
>Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." (Matthew 16:6,7 ULB)
Possible implicit information here is that the disciples should beware of the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. But Jesus' disciples did not understand this. They thought that Jesus was talking about real yeast and bread. So it would not be appropriate to state explicitly that the word "yeast" here refers to false teaching. The disciples did not understand what Jesus meant until they heard what Jesus said in Matthew 16:11 -
>"How is it that you do not understand that I was not speaking to you about bread? Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." Then they understood that he was not telling them to beware of yeast in bread, but to beware of the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. (Matthew 16:11,12 ULB)
Only after Jesus explained that he was not talking about bread did they realize that he was talking about the false teaching of the Pharisees. Therefore it would be wrong to explicitly state the implicit information in Matthew 16:6.
### Translation Strategies
This page does not have any translation strategies.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
This page does not have any translation strategies applied.

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When should I not make implicit information explicit?

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When to Keep Information Implicit

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### Description
In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" and "his" can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* When reading a sentence in the Bible, the translator needs to be able to determine whether the use of a word that normally refers to men refers only to men or to both men and women.
* In some cultures words like "man," "brother," and "son" can only be used to refer to men. If those words are used in a translation in a more general way, people will think that what is being said does not apply to women.
* In some cultures, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" can only refer to men. If a masculine pronoun is used, people will think that what is said does not apply to women.
### Translation Principles
When a statement applies to both men and women, translate it in such a way that people will be able to understand that it applies to both.
### Examples from the Bible
>We want you to know, <u>brothers</u>, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULB)
This verse is addressing the believers in Corinth, not only men, but **men and women**.
>For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>sons</u> of God. (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)
When Paul wrote "sons of God," he was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
>Then said Jesus to his disciples, "If anyone wants to follow me, <u>he</u> must deny <u>himself</u>, take up <u>his</u> cross, and follow me." (Matthew 16:24-26 ULB)
Jesus was not speaking only of men, but of **men and women**.
**Caution**: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The underlined words below are specifically about men.
>Moses said, 'If a <u>man</u> dies, having no children, <u>his</u> <u>brother</u> must marry <u>his</u> wife and have a child for <u>his</u> <u>brother</u>.' (Mark 22:24 ULB)
### Translation Strategies
If people would understand that that masculine words like "man," "brother," and "he" can include women, then consider using them. Otherwise, here are some ways for translating those words when they include women.
1. Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use nouns that can be used for both men and women.
* **The wise <u>man</u> dies just like the fool dies.** (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULB)
* The wise <u>person</u> dies just like the fool dies.
* Wise <u>people</u> die just like fools die.
* **For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>sons</u> of God.** (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)
* For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are <u>children</u> of God.
1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
* **For we do not want you to be uninformed, <u>brothers</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia.** (2 Corinthians 1:8)
* For we do not want you to be uninformed, <u>brothers and sisters</u>, about the troubles we had in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8)
1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.
* **If anyone wants to follow me, <u>he</u> must deny <u>himself</u>, take up <u>his</u> cross, and follow me."** (Matthew 16:24 ULB)
* If <u>people</u> want to follow me, <u>they</u> must deny <u>themselves</u>, take up <u>their</u> cross, and follow me.

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How do I translate "brother" or "he" when it could refer to anyone, male or female?

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When Masculine Words Include Women

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### Description
Generic noun phrases refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things. This happens frequently in proverbs, because proverbs tell about things that are true about people in general.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
Different languages have different ways of showing that noun phrases refer to something in general. Translators should refer to these general ideas in ways that are natural in their language.
### Examples from the Bible
>The <u>righteous person</u> is kept away from trouble and it comes upon <u>the wicked</u> instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULB)
The underlined phrases above do not refer to any specific people but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.
>People curse <u>the man who refuses to sell them grain</u>.... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
This does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who refuses to sell grain.
>Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>. (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)
The phrase "a good man" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who is good. The phrase "a man who makes evil plans" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who makes evil plans.
### Translation Strategies
If your language can use the same wording as in the ULB to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. Here are some strategies you might use.
1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.
1. Use the word "any", as in "any person" or "anyone."
1. Use the plural form, as in "people."
1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.
* **Yahweh gives favor to <u>a good man</u>, but he condemns <u>a man who makes evil plans</u>.** (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)
* Yahweh gives favor to <u>the good man</u>, but he condemns <u>the man who makes evil plans</u>. (Proverbs 12:2)
1. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>a man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...
1. Use the word "any, as in "any person" or "anyone."
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>any man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...
1. Use the plural form, as in "people" (or in this sentence, "men").
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>men</u> who refuse to sell them grain ...
1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.
* **People curse <u>the man</u> who refuses to sell them grain ...** (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
* People curse <u>whoever</u> refuses to sell them grain ...
* People curse <u>those</u> who refuse to sell them grain ...

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What are generic noun phrases and how can I translate them?

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Generic Noun Phrases

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### Description
Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words "go" and "come" or "take" and "bring" differently than your language uses them. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say "I'm coming," while Spanish speakers say "I'm going." You will need to translate these words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
If these words are not translated in a way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving in.
### Examples from the Bible
>Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ... (Genesis 7:1 ULB)
In some languages, this would lead people to think that Yahweh was in the ark.
>But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULB)
Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham's relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing, and he wanted his servant to move toward them, not toward Abraham.
>When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ... (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)
Moses was speaking to the people in the wilderness. Moses and the people had not yet gone into the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, "When you have <u>gone</u> into the land..."
>... they <u>brought</u> him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULB)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary <u>took</u> or <u>carried</u> Jesus up to the temple.
>Behold, a man named Jairus ... came and fell down at Jesus' feet, and he begged him to <u>come</u> to his house ... (Luke 8:41 ULB)
The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to <u>go</u> with him to his house.
>Some time after this his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not go out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UDB)
In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Elizabeth did not <u>come</u> out in public.
### Translation Strategies
If the word used in the ULB would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.
1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.
* **But you will be free from my oath if you <u>come</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you.** (Genesis 24:41 ULB)
* But you will be free from my oath if you <u>go</u> to my relatives and they will not give her to you.
1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.
* **When you have <u>come</u> to the land that Yahweh your God gives you ...** (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)
* When you have <u>arrived</u> in the land that Yahweh your God gives you ...
* **Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Come</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ...** (Genesis 7:1 ULB)
* Yahweh said to Noah, "<u>Enter</u>, you and all your household, into the ark ...

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