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Updates regarding biblical imagery and metaphors (#242)

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Joel D. Ruark 2019-10-29 04:44:42 +00:00 committed by Gogs
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checking/publishing/publishing.md → checking/publishing/01.md
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checking/toc.yaml
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@ -20,11 +20,6 @@ sections:
link: important-term-check
- title: "translationNotes Check in tC"
link: trans-note-check
- title: "Church Leader Check"
link: church-leader-check
sections:
- title: "Checking the Translation for Accuracy"
link: accuracy-check
- title: "Language Community Check"
sections:
- title: "Checking the Translation for Clarity and Naturalness"
@ -39,6 +34,12 @@ sections:
link: acceptable
- title: "Language Community Evaluation Questions"
link: community-evaluation
- title: "Church Leader Check"
sections:
- title: "Qualifications for Accuracy Checkers"
link: church-leader-check
- title: "Checking the Translation for Accuracy"
link: accuracy-check
- title: "Affirmation of Accuracy and Community Acceptance"
link: good
- title: "Validation Checking"
@ -52,39 +53,38 @@ sections:
link: vol2-things-to-check
- title: "Questions for Validation Checking"
link: level3-questions
- title: "Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation
sections:
- title: "The Purpose of the Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation-purpose
- title: "The Back Translator"
link: vol2-backtranslation-who
- title: "Kinds of Back Translations"
link: vol2-backtranslation-kinds
- title: "Kinds of Written Back Translations"
link: vol2-backtranslation-written
- title: "Guidelines for Creating a Good Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation-guidelines
- title: "Validation Approval"
link: level3-approval
- title: "Formatting and Publishing"
sections:
- title: "How to Check for Good Formatting"
link: formatting
- title: "Appropriate Alphabet"
link: alphabet
- title: "Consistent Spelling"
link: spelling
- title: "Consistent Punctuation"
link: punctuation
- title: "Complete Translation"
link: complete
- title: "Complete Versification"
link: verses
- title: "Section Headings"
link: headings
- title: "Publishing"
link: publishing
- title: "Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation
sections:
- title: "The Purpose of the Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation-purpose
- title: "The Back Translator"
link: vol2-backtranslation-who
- title: "Kinds of Back Translations"
link: vol2-backtranslation-kinds
- title: "Formatting and Publishing"
sections:
- title: "Kinds of Written Back Translations"
link: vol2-backtranslation-written
- title: "Guidelines for Creating a Good Back Translation"
link: vol2-backtranslation-guidelines
- title: "Self-Assessment Rubric"
link: self-assessment
- title: "How to Check for Good Formatting"
link: formatting
- title: "Appropriate Alphabet"
link: alphabet
- title: "Consistent Spelling"
link: spelling
- title: "Consistent Punctuation"
link: punctuation
- title: "Complete Translation"
link: complete
- title: "Complete Versification"
link: verses
- title: "Section Headings"
link: headings
- title: "Publishing"
link: publishing
- title: "Self-Assessment Rubric"
link: self-assessment

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intro/finding-answers/01.md
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@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ There are several resources available for finding answers to questions:
* **unfoldingWord® Translation Academy** - This training manual is available at http://ufw.io/ta and has much information including:
* [Introduction](../ta-intro/01.md) - introduces this resource, the Gateway Languages strategy, and translation
* [Process Manual](../../process/process-manual/01.md) - answers the question “what next?”
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and how to use practical translation helps
* [Translation Manual](../../translate/translate-manual/01.md) - explains the basics of translation theory and provides practical translation helps
* [Checking Manual](../../checking/intro-check/01.md) - explains the basics of checking theory and best practices
* **Door43 Slack** - Join the Door43 community, post your questions to the “#helpdesk” channel, and get real-time answers to your questions (sign up at http://ufw.io/door43)
* **Door43 Forum** - A place to ask questions and get answers to technical, strategic, translation, and checking issues, https://forum.door43.org/

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@ -2,35 +2,53 @@
### Description
Imagery is language in which an image is paired with another idea so that the image represents the idea. This includes metaphors, similes, metonymies, and cultural models. Most of these things in a language come from broad patterns of pairings between images and ideas, but some do not. These pages on Biblical Imagery tell about patterns of imagery in the Bible.
The term "biblical imagery" refers in a general way to any kind of language in which an image is paired with an idea such that the image represents the idea. This general definition is applied most directly to [metaphors](../figs-metaphor) but can also includes [similes](../figs-simile), [metonymies](../figs-metonymy), and cultural models.
The patterns of pairings found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere they see the same patterns.
We have included several modules about biblical imagery in order to tell about the various patterns of imagery found in the Bible. The patterns of pairings found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems regarding how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere they see the same patterns. See [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) for links to pages showing common patterns of pairings between ideas in similes and metaphors.
### Common Patterns in Metaphors and Similes
### Common Types of Biblical Imagery
A **metaphor** occurs when someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing. The speaker does this in order to effectively describe the first thing. For example, in “My love is a red, red rose,” the speaker is describing the woman he loves as beautiful and delicate, as though she were a flower.
A **simile** is an explicit figure of speech that compares two items using one of the specific terms "like", "as", or "than".
A **simile** is like a metaphor, except that it uses words such as “like” or “as” as a signal to the audience that it is a figure of speech. A simile using the image above would say, “My love is <u>like</u> a red, red rose.”
A **metonymy** is an implicit figure of speech that refers to an item (either physical or abstract) not by its own name, but by the name of something closely related to it. See [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) for a list of some common metonymies in the Bible.
“see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) for links to pages showing common patterns of pairings between ideas in metaphors and similes.”
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech which uses a physical image to refer to an abstract idea, either explicitly or implicitly. In our translation helps, we distinguish between three different types of metaphors: [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor), [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor), and [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor).
### Common Metonymies
In a metaphor, the **Image** is the physical term (object, event, action, etc.) that is used to refer to an abstract term (idea, concept, action, etc.).
In metonymy, a thing or idea is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it.
In a metaphor, the **Idea** is the abstract term (concept, action, etc.) which is referred to by the physical term (object, event, action, etc.). Often, the Idea of a metaphor is not explicitly stated in the Bible, but only implied from the context.
A **simple metaphor** is an explicit metaphor in which a single physical image is used to refer to a single abstract idea. For example, when Jesus said "I am the light of the world" (John 8:12 ULT), he was using the Image of "light" to refer to an abstract Idea about himself. NOTE: as with many simple metaphors in the Bible, the Image is explicitly stated, but the Idea is implied from the context.
An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. For example, in Psalm 23 the psalmist writes "Yahweh is my shepherd" and then goes on to describe multiple physical aspects of the relationship between sheep and a shepherd as well as multiple abstract ideas concerning the relationship between himself and Yahweh.
A **complex metaphor** is an implicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. *Complex metaphors are very similar to extended metaphors, except that they are implied by the text rather than explicitly stated. Because of this, complex metaphors can be very difficult to identify in the Bible.* For example, in Ephesians 6:10-20 the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation by comparing abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term "full armor of God" is not a combination of several simple metaphors (where the belt represents truth, the helmet represents salvation, etc.). Rather, the unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole. The apostle Paul was using the physical Image of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, "GETTING DRESSED") to refer to the abstract Idea (that is, "PREPARATION") of a Christian preparing himself to resist temptation.
In our translation helps, we use the term **cultural model** to refer to either an extended metaphor or a complex metaphor that is widely used within a specific culture which may or may not be used within a different culture. See [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md) for a list of some cultural models found in the Bible.
“see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) for a list of some common metonymies in the Bible”
### Cultural Models
Cultural models are mental pictures of parts of life or behavior. These pictures help us imagine and talk about these things. For example, Americans often think of many things, including marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say, “His marriage is breaking down,” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.”
Cultural models are complex metaphors that people use to help them imagine and talk about various aspects of life and behavior. For example, Americans often think of many things, including marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say, “His marriage is breaking down,” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” Often, cultural models that are used in the Bible are not explicitly stated but must be learned by reading large amounts of text and looking for images and metaphors that are repeated in many different contexts.
The Bible often speaks of God as if he were a shepherd and his people were sheep. This is a cultural model.
For example, both the Old Testament and New Testament describe God as if he were a shepherd and his people were sheep. This is a cultural model that is used frequently in the Bible, and it appears as an extended metaphor in Psalm 23. In the culture of ancient Israel, GOD IS MODELED AS A SHEPHERD.
> Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
> <u>Yahweh is my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
> He led his own people out like sheep and guided them through the wilderness like a flock. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> He led his own people out <u>like sheep</u> and guided them through the wilderness <u>like a flock</u>. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
> <u>I am the good shepherd</u>. The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep. (John 10:11 ULT)
> Then when <u>the Chief Shepherd</u> is revealed, you will receive an unfading crown of glory. (1 Peter 5:4 ULT)
Another cultural model is found in Psalm 24, where the psalmist describes God as if he were a mighty and glorious king coming into a city. In the culture of ancient Israel, GOD IS MODELED AS A KING.
> Lift up your heads, you gates; be lifted up, everlasting doors, so that the King of glory may come in! Who is this King of glory? Yahweh, strong and mighty; Yahweh, mighty in battle. (Psalm 24:7-8 ULT)
> Someone who breaks open their way for them will go ahead of them. They break through the gate and go out; <u>their king</u> will pass on before them. <u>Yahweh</u> will be at their head. (Micah 2:8 ULT)
> Out of his mouth goes a sharp sword, so that with it he might strike the nations, and he will shepherd them with an iron rod. He tramples in the winepress of the fury of the wrath of <u>God Almighty</u>. He has a name written on his robe and on his thigh: “<u>King of kings and Lord of lords</u>." (Revelation 19:15-16 ULT)
This cultural model was very common in ancient Near Eastern cultures, and the ancient Israelites who read the Bible would have understood it easily because their nation was ruled by a king. However, many modern nations are not ruled by kings, so this specific cultural model is not as easily understood in many modern cultures.
Some of the cultural models in the Bible were used much by the cultures in the Ancient Near East, and not only by the Israelites.
“see [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md) for a list of cultural models in the Bible.”

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@ -1,5 +1,5 @@
Some images from the Bible involving body parts and human qualities are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
Some images from the Bible involving animals are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### An ANIMAL HORN represents strength

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@ -14,7 +14,9 @@ In these verses, the body of Christ represents the group of people who follow Ch
#### The FACE represents someone’s presence
> Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh’s declaration—or tremble <u>before my face</u>? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULT)
> Pharaoh said to Moses, “Go from me! Be careful about one thing, that you do not see me again, for on the day <u>you see my face</u>, you will die.” Moses said, “You yourself have spoken. <u>I will not see your face again</u>.” (Exodus 10:28-29 ULT)
> > Do you not fear me—this is Yahweh’s declaration—or tremble <u>before my face</u>? (Jeremiah 5:22 ULT)
To be before someone’s face is to be in their presence, that is, to be with them.
@ -63,7 +65,9 @@ To hide one’s face from someone is to ignore him.
> …This is the Lord Yahweh’s declaration: ‘My fury will arise in <u>my nostrils</u>!’ (Ezekiel 38:18 ULT)
A blast of air or smoke coming from someone’s nose shows his great anger.
> Yahweh, Yahweh, God is merciful and gracious, <u>slow to anger</u>... (Exo 34:6 ULT)
In Hebrew, a hot nose represents anger, including such images as a blast of air or smoke coming from someone's nostrils. The opposite of a "hot nose" is a "long nose". The phrase "slow to anger" in Hebrew literally means "long of nose". A long nose represents patience, meaning that it takes a long time for that person's nose to get hot.
#### RAISED EYES represents arrogance
@ -75,13 +79,12 @@ Uplifted eyes show that a person is proud.
Lowered eyes show that a person is humble.
#### The HEAD represents the ruler, the one who has authority over others
#### The HEAD represents a ruler, a leader, or a person with authority over others
> A man from each tribe, <u>a clan head</u>, must serve with you as his tribe’s leader. (Num 1:4 ULT)
> God has subjected all things under Christ’s feet and has <u>made him the head</u> over all things in the church, which is his body, the fullness of him who fills all things in all ways. (Ephesians 1:22 ULT)
> Wives should be subject to their own husbands, as to the Lord. For the husband is <u>the head</u> of the wife, as Christ also is <u>the head</u> of the church, and he is the Savior of the body. (Ephesian 5:22-23 ULT)
#### A NAME represents the person who has that name
> May your God make <u>the name of Solomon</u> better than your name, and make his throne greater than your throne.” 1 Kings 1:47 (ULT)
@ -115,13 +118,11 @@ The fact that the men said they heard a report about Yahweh shows that “becaus
> no <u>son of wickedness</u> will oppress him. (Psalm 89:22b ULT)
A son of wickedness is a wicked person.
> May the groans of the prisoners come before you;
> with the greatness of your power keep the <u>children of death</u> alive. (Psalm 79:11 ULT)
Children of death here are people that others plan to kill.
> We all were once among these unbelievers and acted according to the evil desires of our flesh, doing the will of the flesh and of the mind, and we were by nature <u>children of wrath</u> like the others. (Ephesians 2:3 ULT)

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Some images from the Bible involving human behavior are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### BEING BENT OVER represents being discouraged
#### BEING BENT OVER represents being discouraged or oppressed
> Yahweh supports all who are falling and raises up all those who are <u>bent over</u>. (Psalm 145:14 ULT)
@ -49,7 +49,6 @@ Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the <u>clean</u> animals and some
> The priest will examine him again on the seventh day to see if the disease is better and has not spread farther in the skin. If it has not, then the priest will pronounce him <u>clean</u>. It is a rash. He must wash his clothes, and then he is <u>clean</u>. (Leviticus 13:6 ULT)
#### CLEANSING or PURIFYING represents making something acceptable for God’s Purposes
> He must go out to the altar that is before Yahweh and make atonement for it, and he must take some of the bull’s blood and some of the goat’s blood and put it on the horns of the altar all around. He must sprinkle some of the blood on it with his finger seven times to <u>cleanse</u> it and dedicate it to Yahweh, away from the <u>unclean</u> actions of the people of Israel. (Leviticus 16:18-19 ULT)
@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ Noah built an altar to Yahweh. He took some of the <u>clean</u> animals and some
Covenant faithfulness and trustworthiness are also personified here. (see [Personification](../figs-personification/01.md))
#### DRUNKENNESS represents suffering and WINE represents judgment
#### DRINKING WINE represents judgment
Too much wine makes a person weak and he staggers. So too, when God judges people, they become weak and stagger. So the idea of wine is used to represent God’s judgment.
@ -127,14 +126,10 @@ Another word for “eat up” is devour.
> Therefore as <u>the tongue of fire devours stubble</u>, and as the dry grass goes down in flame,
> so their root will rot, and their blossom will blow away like dust, (Isaiah 5:24 ULT)
Another example from Isaiah.
> Therefore Yahweh will raise up against him, Rezin, his adversary, and will stir up his enemies,
> the Arameans on the east, and the Philistines on the west.
> <u>They will devour Israel with open mouth</u>. (Isaiah 9:11-12 ULT)
An example from Deuteronomy.
> I will make my arrows drunk with blood,
> and <u>my sword will devour flesh</u>
> with the blood of the killed and the captives,
@ -162,7 +157,7 @@ An example from Deuteronomy.
> Not one of them who despised me will see it, except for my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit. <u>He has followed me fully</u>; I will bring him into the land which he went to examine. His descendants will possess it. (Numbers 14:23-24 ULT)
#### GOING BEFORE, ACCOMPANYING, OR FOLLOWING A KING WITH HIS OTHER ATTENDANTS represents serving him
#### GOING BEFORE, ACCOMPANYING, or FOLLOWING A KING WITH HIS OTHER ATTENDANTS represents serving him
> See, his reward is <u>with him</u>, and his recompense is <u>going before him</u>. (Isaiah 62:11 ULT)
@ -208,7 +203,7 @@ God’s Son will receive all things as a permanent possession.
Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
#### LYING DOWN represents DYING
#### LYING DOWN or SLEEPING represents DYING
> When your days are fulfilled and you <u>lie down with your fathers</u>, I will raise up a descendant after you, (2 Samuel 7:12 ULT)
@ -216,7 +211,7 @@ Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
> They will fall among those who were killed by the sword! Egypt is given to the sword; her enemies will seize her and her servants! (Ezekiel 32:19-20 ULT)
#### REIGNING OR RULING represents controlling
#### REIGNING or RULING represents controlling
> This happened so that, as sin <u>ruled</u> in death, even so grace might <u>rule</u> through righteousness for everlasting life through Jesus Christ our Lord. (Romans 5:21 ULT)
@ -234,7 +229,7 @@ Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
> The nations will seek him out, and his <u>resting place</u> will be glorious. (Isaiah 11:10 ULT)
#### RISING, STANDING UP represents acting
#### RISING or STANDING UP represents acting
> <u>Rise up</u> for our help and redeem us for the sake of your covenant faithfulness. (Psalm 44:26 ULT)
@ -244,12 +239,12 @@ Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
> You will not let the one who has covenant faithfulness <u>see</u> the pit. (Psalm 16:10 ULT)
#### SELLING represents handing over to someone’s control. BUYING represents removing from someone’s control
#### SELLING represents handing over to someone’s control; BUYING represents removing from someone’s control
> [Yahweh] <u>sold</u> [the Israelites] into the hand of Cushan Rishathaim king of Aram Naharaim. (Judges 3:8 ULT)
#### SITTING IS RULING
#### SITTING represents ruling or judging
> A throne will be established in covenant faithfulness, and one from David’s tent will faithfully <u>sit</u> there. ( Isaiah 16:5 ULT)
@ -259,7 +254,7 @@ Noah received righteousness as a permanent possession.
> So the wicked will not <u>stand</u> in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:2 ULT)
#### WALKING represents behaving and PATH (WAY) represents behavior
#### WALKING represents behaving; a PATH or a WAY represents behavior
> Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked. Psalm 1:1 ULT)

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@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ Some images from the Bible involving man-made objects are listed below in alphab
> Let us tear off the <u>shackles</u> they put on us and throw off their <u>chains</u>. Psalm 2:3
#### CLOTHING represents moral qualities (emotions, attitudes, spirit, life)
#### CLOTHING represents moral or emotional qualities (attitudes, spirit, life)
> It is God who puts strength on me like a <u>belt</u>. (Psalm 18:32 ULT)
@ -23,7 +23,7 @@ Some images from the Bible involving man-made objects are listed below in alphab
> I will <u>clothe his enemies with shame</u>. (Psalm 132:18 ULT)
#### A SNARE (A LIGHT TRAP FOR BIRDS WORKED BY CORDS) represents death
#### A SNARE (that is, a SMALL TRAP for birds worked by cords) represents death
> For he will rescue you from the <u>snare</u> of the hunter. (Psalm 91:3 ULT)

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@ -4,11 +4,11 @@ This page discusses ideas that are paired together in limited ways. (For a discu
### Description
In all languages, most **metaphors** come from broad patterns of pairings of ideas in which one idea represents another. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing __height__ with “much” and pairing __being low__ with “not much,” so that __height__ represents “much” and __being low__ represents “not much.” This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is __high__, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone __up__. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone __down__.
In all languages, most [metaphors](../figs-metaphor/01.md) come from broad patterns of pairings of items in which a physical Image represents an abstract Idea. For example, some languages have the pattern of pairing __height__ with “much” and pairing __being low__ with “not much,” so that __height__ represents “much” and __being low__ represents “not much.” This could be because when there is a lot of something in a pile, that pile will be high. So also if something costs a lot money, in some languages people would say that the price is __high__, or if a city has more people in it than it used to have, we might say that its number of people has gone __up__. Likewise if someone gets thinner and loses weight, we would say that their weight has gone __down__.
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere.
The patterns found in the Bible are often unique to the Hebrew and Greek languages. It is useful to recognize these patterns because they repeatedly present translators with the same problems on how to translate them. Once translators think through how they will handle these translation challenges, they will be ready to meet them anywhere. (See the modules about [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor) and [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor).)
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of <u>walking</u> with “behaving” and <u>a path</u> with a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1 the walking in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
For example, one pattern of pairings in the Bible is of WALKING representing “behaving” and a PATH representing a kind of behavior. In Psalm 1:1, to "walk" in the advice of the wicked represents doing what wicked people say to do.
> Blessed is the man who does not <u>walk</u> in the advice of the wicked (Psalm 1:1 ULT)
@ -22,9 +22,9 @@ This pattern is also seen in Psalm 119:32 where running in the path of God’s c
These patterns present three challenges to anyone who wants to identify them:
1. When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, it is God who puts strength on me like a belt. (Psalm 18:32 ULT) is based on the pairing of clothing with moral quality. In this case, the image of a belt represents strength. (see “Clothing represents a moral quality” in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md))
(1) When looking at particular metaphors in the Bible, it is not always obvious what two ideas are paired with each other. For example, it may not be immediately obvious that the expression, "It is God who puts strength on me like a belt" (Psalm 18:32 ULT) is based on the pairing of CLOTHING with moral quality. In this case, the image of a BELT represents strength. (see “Clothing represents a moral quality” in [Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects](../bita-manmade/01.md) as well as the module about [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor))
1. When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether “lamp” refers concretely to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether “lamp” is an image that represents life. (see “FIRE or LAMP represents life” in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md))
(2) When looking at a particular expression, the translator needs to know whether or not it represents something. This can only be done by considering the surrounding text. The surrounding text shows us, for example, whether “lamp” refers literally to a container with oil and a wick for giving light or whether “lamp” is a metaphor that represents life. (see “LIGHT or FIRE represents life” in [Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena](../bita-phenom/01.md))
In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary lamp. In 2 Samuel 21:17 the lamp of Israel represents King David’s life. When his men were concerned that he might “put out the lamp of Israel” they were concerned that he might be killed.
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ In 1 Kings 7:50, a lamp trimmer is a tool for trimming the wick on an ordinary l
> Ishbibenob…intended to kill David. But Abishai the son of Zeruiah rescued David, attacked the Philistine, and killed him. Then the men of David swore to him, saying, “You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp</u> of Israel.” (2 Samuel 21:16-17 ULT)
1. Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with—and in some cases are based on—common metonymies and cultural models. (see [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md))
(3) Expressions that are based on these pairings of ideas frequently combine together in complex ways. Moreover, they frequently combine with (and in some cases are based on) common metonymies and cultural models. See [Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies](../bita-part2/01.md) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).
For example, in 2 Samuel 14:7 below, “the burning coal” is an image for the life of the son, who represents what will cause people to remember his father. So there are two patterns of pairings here: the pairing of the burning coal with the life of the son, and the pairing of the son with the memory of his father.
@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ For example, in 2 Samuel 14:7 below, “the burning coal” is an image for the
#### Links to Lists of Images in the Bible
The following pages have lists of some of the ideas that represent others in the Bible, together with examples from the Bible. They are organized according to the kinds of image:
The following pages have lists of some of the Images that represent Ideas in the Bible, together with examples from the Bible. They are organized according to the kinds of image:
* [Biblical Imagery - Body Parts and Human Qualities](../bita-hq/01.md)
* [Biblical Imagery - Human Behavior](../bita-humanbehavior/01.md) - Includes both physical and non-physical actions, conditions and experiences

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Some common metonymies from the Bible are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
Some common metonymies from the Bible are listed below in alphabetical order. In the examples below, the WORD IN ALL CAPITAL LETTERS is the <u>name that is used</u> in the metonymy. The [word or phrase in brackets] is the <u>name that is meant</u> by the metonymy.
#### A CUP or bowl represents what is in it
#### A CUP (or bowl) means [what is inside it]
> my <u>cup</u> runs over. (Psalm 23:5 ULT)
@ -12,7 +12,7 @@ There is so much in the cup that it runs over the top of the cup.
People do not drink cups. They drink what is in the cup.
#### The MOUTH represents speech or words
#### The MOUTH means [speech] or [words]
> A fool’s <u>mouth</u> is his ruin. (Proverbs 18:7 ULT)
@ -22,7 +22,15 @@ People do not drink cups. They drink what is in the cup.
In these examples the mouth refers to what a person says.
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON represents his descendants
#### A HOUSE means [the people who live in the house] or [a family]
> Now Yahweh said to Abram, “Go from your country, and from your relatives, and from your father’s <u>household</u>, to the land that I will show you. (Genesis 12:1 ULT)
> They said, “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your <u>household</u>.” 32 They spoke the word of the Lord to him, together with everyone in his house. 33 Then the jailer took them at the same hour of the night, and washed their wounds, and he and those in his entire house were baptized immediately. (Acts 16:31-33 ULT)
In original languages (Hebrew and Greek), the words translated here as "household" literally mean "house". The word "house" is a metonym for the people who live in the house. This is very common metonym in the Bible.
#### The MEMORY OF A PERSON means [his descendants]
The memory of a person represents his descendants, because they are the ones who should remember and honor him. When the Bible says that someone’s memory dies, it means that either he will not have any descendants, or his descendants will all die.
@ -39,14 +47,14 @@ The memory of a person represents his descendants, because they are the ones who
> in order to wipe out <u>their memory</u> from the earth. (Psalm 34:16 ULT)
#### ONE PERSON represents a group of people
#### ONE PERSON means [a group of people]
> For <u>the wicked person</u> boasts of his deepest desires;
> he blesses the greedy and insults Yahweh. (Psalm 10:3 ULT)
This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in general.
#### A PERSON’S NAME represents his descendants
#### A PERSON’S NAME means [his descendants]
> Gad—raiders will attack him, but he will attack them at their heels.
> Asher’s food will be rich, and he will provide royal delicacies.
@ -55,13 +63,13 @@ This does not refer to a particular wicked person, but to wicked people in gener
The names Gad, Asher, and Naphtali refer not only to those men, but to their descendants.
#### A PERSON represents himself and the people with him
#### A PERSON means [himself and the people with him]
> It came about that when Abram entered into Egypt, the Egyptians saw that Sarai was very beautiful. (Genesis 12:14 ULT)
Here when it says “Abram” it represents Abram and all the people traveling with him. The focus was on Abram.
#### PIERCING represents killing
#### PIERCING means [killing]
> His hand <u>pierced</u> the fleeing serpent. (Job 26:13 ULT)
@ -71,7 +79,7 @@ This means that he killed the serpent.
“Those who pierced him” refers to those who killed Jesus.
#### SINS (INIQUITY) represent punishment for those sins
#### SINS (or INIQUITY) means [punishment for wrongdoing]
> Yahweh has placed on him the <u>iniquity</u> of us all (Isaiah 53:6 ULT)

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### Description
Cultural models are mental pictures of parts of life or behavior. These pictures help us imagine and talk about these topics. For example, Americans often think of many things, even marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say “His marriage is breaking down” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” In this example, human relationships are modeled as a MACHINE.
Cultural models are mental images that the people of a culture use to think about and to talk about certain aspects of life or behavior. For example, Americans often think of many things, even marriage and friendship, as if they were machines. Americans might say “His marriage is breaking down” or “Their friendship is going full speed ahead.” In this example, human relationships are modeled as a MACHINE. One can say that cultural models are [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor/01.md) that are commonly used by people of a particular culture.
Some cultural models, or mental pictures, found in the Bible are listed below. First there are models for God, then models for humans, things, and experiences. Each heading has the model written in capital letters. That word or phrase does not necessarily appear in every verse, but the idea does.
#### God is modeled as a HUMAN BEING
Although the Bible explicitly denies that God is a human being, he is often spoken of as doing things that humans do. But God is not human, so when the Bible says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when it says something about him doing something with his hand, we should not think that he has a physical hand.
> If we hear <u>the voice of Yahweh our God</u> any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULT)
> I have been strengthened by <u>the hand of Yahweh my God</u> (Ezra 7:28 ULT)
> <u>The hand of God</u> also came on Judah, to give them one heart to carry out the command of the king and leaders by the word of Yahweh (2 Chronicles 30:12 ULT)
The word “hand” here is a metonym that refers to God’s power. (See: [Metonymy](../figs-metonymy/01.md))
Some common cultural models found in the Bible are listed below. First there are models for God, then models for humans, things, and experiences. Each heading has the model written in capital letters. That word or phrase does not necessarily appear in every verse, but the idea does.
#### God is modeled as a KING
@ -38,22 +25,6 @@ The word “hand” here is a metonym that refers to God’s power. (See: [Meton
> for the <u>shields</u> of the earth belong to God;
> he is greatly exalted. (Psalm 47:8-9 ULT)
#### God is modeled as a SHEPHERD and his people are modeled as SHEEP
> Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing. (Psalm 23:1 ULT)
His people are sheep.
> For he is our God, and we are the people of <u>his pasture</u> and the <u>sheep of his hand</u>. (Psalm 95:7 ULT)
He leads his people like sheep.
> He led his own people out <u>like sheep</u> and guided them through the wilderness <u>like a flock</u>. (Psalm 78:52 ULT)
He is willing to die in order to save his sheep.
> I am the good shepherd, and I know my own, and my own know me. The Father knows me, and I know the Father, and <u>I lay down my life for the sheep</u>. I have other sheep that are not of this fold. Those, also, I must bring, and they will hear my voice so that there will be one flock and one shepherd. (John 10:14-15 ULT)
#### God is modeled as a WARRIOR
> Yahweh is a <u>warrior</u>; (Exodus 15:3 ULT)
@ -77,40 +48,6 @@ He is willing to die in order to save his sheep.
> Therefore be careful about yourselves, and about all the <u>flock</u> of which the Holy Spirit has made you overseers. Be careful to <u>shepherd</u> the assembly of the Lord, which he purchased with his own blood. 29I know that after my departure, vicious wolves will enter in among you, and not spare the <u>flock</u>. I know that from even among your own selves some men shall come and say corrupt things, in order to draw away the disciples after them. (Acts 20:28-30 ULT)
#### The eye is modeled as a LAMP
Variations of this model and the model of the EVIL EYE are found in many parts of the world. In most of the cultures represented in the Bible, these models included the following elements:
People see objects, not because of light around the object, but because of light that shines from their eyes onto those objects.
> The eye is the <u>lamp</u> of the body. Therefore, if your eye is good, the whole body is <u>filled with light</u>. (Matthew 6:22 ULT)
This light shining from the eyes carries with itself the viewer’s character.
> The appetite of the wicked craves evil; his neighbor sees no <u>kindness in his eyes</u>. (Proverbs 21:10 ULT)
#### Envy and cursing are modeled as looking with an EVIL EYE at someone, and favor is modeled as looking with a GOOD EYE at someone
The primary emotion of a person with the evil eye is envy. The Greek word translated as “envy” in Mark 7 is “eye,” which refers here to an evil eye.
> He said, “It is that which comes out of the person that defiles him. For from within a person, out of the heart, proceed evil thoughts…, <u>envy</u>…. (Mark 7:20-22 ULT)
The context for Matthew 20:15 includes the emotion of envy. “Is your eye evil?” means “Are you envious?”
> Is it not legitimate for me to do what I wish with my own possessions? Or is your <u>eye evil</u> because I am good? (Matthew 20:15 ULT)
If a person’s eye is evil, that person is envious of other people’s money.
> The eye is the lamp of the body. Therefore, if your <u>eye is good</u>, the whole body is filled with light. But if your <u>eye is bad</u>, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! No one can serve two masters, for either he will hate the one and love the other, or else he will be devoted to one and despise the other. <u>You cannot serve God and wealth</u>. (Matthew 6:22-24 ULT)
A person who is envious might put a curse or enchantment on someone by looking at him with an evil eye.
> Foolish Galatians, whose <u>evil eye</u> has harmed you? (Galatians 3:1 ULT)
A person with a good eye can put a blessing on someone by looking at him.
> If I have found <u>favor in your eyes</u>… (1 Samuel 27:5 ULT)
#### Life is modeled as BLOOD
In this model, the blood of a person or an animal represents its life.
@ -136,7 +73,7 @@ If blood cries out, nature itself is crying out for vengeance on a person who ki
> When Israel was a young man I loved him, and I called <u>my son</u> out of Egypt. (Hosea 11:1 ULT)
#### The sun is modeled as BEING IN A CONTAINER AT NIGHT
#### The sun is modeled as BEING IN A CONTAINER when it is not visible
> Yet their words go out over all the earth and their speech to the end of the world. He has pitched <u>a tent for the sun</u> among them. The sun is like a bridegroom coming out of <u>his chamber</u> and like a strong man who rejoices when he runs his race. (Psalm 19:4-5 ULT)
@ -235,4 +172,4 @@ Leprosy is a disease. If a person had it, he was said to be unclean.
An “unclean spirit” is an evil spirit.
> When an <u>unclean spirit</u> has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULT)
> When an <u>unclean spirit</u> has gone away from a man, it passes through waterless places and looks for rest, but does not find it. (Matthew 12:43 ULT)

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Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The word in all capital letters represents an image. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The word in all capital letters is a physical Image that represents an abstract Idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does appear.
#### LIGHT represents moral righteousness, DARKNESS represents moral wickedness
> OT ref
> Woe to those <u>who call evil good, and good evil</u>; <u>who represent darkness as light, and light as darkness</u>; <u>who represent bitter as sweet, and sweet as bitter</u>! (Isaiah 5:20 ULT)
> But if your eye is bad, your whole body is full of darkness. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually darkness, how great is that darkness! (Matthew 6:23 ULT)
> But if your eye is <u>bad</u>, your whole body is <u>full of darkness</u>. Therefore, if the light that is in you is actually <u>darkness</u>, how great is that <u>darkness</u>! (Matthew 6:23 ULT)
#### LIGHT represents pleasant feelings, DARKNESS represents unpleasant feelings
#### LIGHT or SWEETNESS represents pleasant feelings, DARKNESS or BITTERNESS represents unpleasant feelings
> OT ref
> Truly the <u>light is sweet</u>, and it is a <u>pleasant thing</u> for the eyes to see the sun. (Ecclesiastes 11:7 ULT)
> NT ref
> I am a man who has seen <u>misery</u> under the rod of Yahweh’s fury. He drove me away and caused me to walk in <u>darkness</u> rather than light. (Lamentations 3:1-2 ULT)
#### LIGHT represents wisdom, DARKNESS represents foolishness
> OT ref
> Then I began to understand that <u>wisdom has advantages over folly</u>, just as <u>light is better than darkness</u>. (Ecclesiastes 2:13 ULT)
> NT ref
> They are <u>darkened in their understanding</u>, being alienated from the life of God because of the <u>ignorance</u> that is in them, because of the <u>hardness of their hearts</u>. (Ephesians 4:18 ULT)
#### LIGHT or FIRE represents life
> They say, ‘Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the <u>burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. 2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
> They say, ‘Hand over the man who struck his brother, so that we may put him to death, to pay for the life of his brother whom he killed.’ And so they would also destroy the heir. Thus they will put out the <u>burning coal</u> that I have left, and they will leave for my husband neither name nor descendant on the surface of the earth. (2 Samuel 14:7 ULT)
> You must not go to battle anymore with us, so that you do not put out the <u>lamp of Israel</u>. (2 Samuel 21:17 ULT)
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The wor
#### DARKNESS or SHADOW represents death
> Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the <u>shadow of death</u>. (Psalm 44:19)
> Yet you have severely broken us in the place of jackals and covered us with the <u>shadow of death</u>. (Psalm 44:19 ULT)
#### LIGHT OF THE FACE represents smiling (that is, an attitude of grace or favor)
@ -68,7 +68,7 @@ Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The wor
#### A WIDE SPACE reperesents safetey, security, and ease
> They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support!
> They came against me on the day of my distress but Yahweh was my support.
> He set me free in <u>a wide open place</u>; he saved me because he was pleased with me. (Psalms 18:18-19 ULT)
> You have made <u>a wide place</u> for my feet beneath me,
@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The wor
> Answer me when I call, God of my righteousness;
> give me room when <u>I am hemmed in</u>.
> Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. Psalm 4:1 ULT)
> Have mercy on me and listen to my prayer. (Psalm 4:1 ULT)
> For a prostitute is a deep pit,
> and an immoral woman is <u>a narrow well</u>. (Proverbs 23:27 ULT)
@ -133,9 +133,9 @@ Some images from the Bible involving natural phenomena are listed below. The wor
#### A ROCK represents salvation or protection
> Who is a rock except our God? (Psalm 18:31 ULT)
> Who is a <u>rock</u> except our God? (Psalm 18:31 ULT)
> Yahweh, my rock, and my redeemer. (Psalm 19:14 ULT)
> Yahweh, <u>my rock</u>, and my redeemer. (Psalm 19:14 ULT)

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Some images from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters represents an idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
Some images from the Bible involving plants are listed below in alphabetical order. The word in all capital letters is the Image which represents an Idea. The word does not necessarily appear in every verse that has the image, but the idea that the word represents does.
#### A BRANCH represents a person’s descendant

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A **complex metaphor** is an *implicit* [metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md) that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to [simple metaphors](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which use only a single Image and a single Idea. Complex metaphors are similar to [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor); the difference is that extended metaphors are explicitly stated in the text, but complex metaphors are not. For this reason, it can be extremely difficult to identify complex metaphors in the Bible.
### Explanation of a Complex Metaphor
When using a metaphor, a writer/speaker uses a physical Image in order to express an abstract Idea about some immediate Topic, with at least one point of comparison between the Topic and the Image. In simple metaphors, usually the Topic and the Image are expressed, and the Idea is implied from the context. In extended metaphors, the writer or speaker explicitly states the topic, and then describes multiple images and communicates multiple ideas. A complex metaphor is different from both of these. In a complex metaphor, a writer/speaker uses multiple Images to express multiple Ideas about a Topic, but he does not explicitly say how the images and ideas are metaphorically related to one another. The reader/listener must think very carefully about what the writer/speaker is saying in order to figure out the underlying relationship between the images and the ideas. *One can say more precisely that a complex metaphor operates <u>in the mind of the writer/speaker</u> rather than <u>in the text itself</u>.*
For example, the metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING is a very common complex metaphor in both the Old Testament and the New Testament. Consider the following verses from Psalm 51.
> Have mercy on me, God, because of your covenant faithfulness; for the sake of the multitude of your merciful actions, <u>blot out</u> my transgressions. <u>Wash me thoroughly</u> from my iniquity and <u>cleanse me</u> from my sin. For I know my transgressions, and my sin is always before me. Against you, you only, I have sinned and done what is evil in your sight; you are right when you speak; you are correct when you judge. See, I was born in iniquity; as soon as my mother conceived me, I was in sin. See, you desire trustworthiness in my inner self; and you teach me wisdom in the secret place within. <u>Purify me</u> with hyssop, and <u>I will be clean</u>; <u>wash me</u>, and I will be whiter than snow. Make me hear joy and gladness so that the bones that you have broken may rejoice. Hide your face from my sins and <u>blot out</u> all my iniquities. Create in me <u>a clean heart</u>, God, and renew a right spirit within me. (Psa 51:1-10 ULT)
Here the psalmist is praying to God in earnest repentance for his sin (the **Topic**). This psalm includes multiple terms for sin ("transgressions", "iniquity", "evil") as well as multiple images related to the event of cleansing ("wash", "purify", "blot out"). If you were to read the psalm literally, you might think that the psalmist is asking God to give him a bath! But the psalmist is not asking for that, because washing will not solve his problem. He knows that he is guilty of sin and that he deserves for God to judge him for his wrongdoing. Rather, the psalmist is asking God to forgive him for what he has done wrong, using words that mean "washing" or "cleansing". In other words, in his mind the psalmist is imagining the action of forgiving as if it were washing. The psalmist is using the **Image** of CLEANSING to represent the **Idea** of FORGIVENESS. We express this as the complex metaphor FORGIVENESS IS CLEANSING, but this metaphor is nowhere stated in the text itself. (This same complex metaphor is also found in Isa 1:2-31, Eph 5:25-27, 1 John 1:7-9, and others.)
The apostle Paul uses an even more difficult complex metaphor in Ephesians 6:10-20:
> Finally, be strong in the Lord and in the power of his might. <u>Put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to stand against the scheming plans of the devil</u>. For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the world-controllers of this darkness, against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly places. Therefore put on the whole armor of God, so that you may be able to withstand in the evil day, and, having done everything, to stand. 14 Stand, therefore, after <u>having fastened up your robe around your waist with the truth</u> and <u>having put on the breastplate of righteousness</u>, and <u>having shod your feet with the readiness of the gospel of peace</u>. 16 In all circumstances <u>take up the shield of faith</u>, by which you will be able to put out all the flaming arrows of the evil one. <u>Take the helmet of salvation</u> and <u>the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God</u>. With every prayer and request, pray at all times in the Spirit. To this end, be watchful with all perseverance and requests for all the saints, and for me, that a message may be given to me when I open my mouth, to make known with boldness the mystery of the gospel (for which I am an ambassador in chains), so that in it I may speak boldly, as it is appropriate for me to speak. (Eph 6:10-20 ULT)
In this paragraph, the apostle Paul describes how a Christian should prepare to resist temptation (the **Topic**) by comparing a series of abstract ideas to pieces of armor worn by a soldier. The term “full armor of God” is not a combination of several simple metaphors. The soldier's belt does not represent truth, the helmet does not represent salvation, the shield does not represent faith, and so on. Rather, the apostle Paul was using the central **Image** of a soldier putting on his armor (that is, “GETTING DRESSED” for battle) to refer to the central abstract **Idea** of a Christian preparing himself (that is, "PREPARATION") to resist temptation. The unstated complex metaphor PREPARATION IS GETTING DRESSED underlies the entire description as a whole.
### Other Examples from the Bible
The Bible often speaks of God as doing things that people do, such as speaking, seeing, walking, etc. But God is not a human being. [Although Jesus IS both God and a human being, of course.] So when the Old Testament says that God speaks, we should not think that he has vocal chords that vibrate. And when the Bible says something about God doing something with his hand, we should not think that God has a physical hand made of flesh and bones. Rather, the writer is thinking about God as a person, using the physical **Image** of a human being to represent the abstract **Idea** "God." The writer is using the complex metaphor GOD IS A HUMAN, even though he does not explicitly say so in the text.
> If we hear <u>the voice of Yahweh our God</u> any longer, we will die. (Deuteronomy 5:25 ULT)
> I have been strengthened by <u>the hand of Yahweh my God</u> (Ezra 7:28 ULT)
> You drove out the nations with <u>your hand</u>, but you planted our people; you afflicted the peoples, but you spread our people out in the land. For they did not obtain the land for their possession by their own sword, neither did their own arm save them; but <u>your right hand</u>, <u>your arm</u>, and the light of <u>your face</u>, because you were favorable to them. (Psa 44:2-3 ULT)
### Translation Strategies
* Complex metaphors in the Bible should be translated like passive metaphors.
* For strategies regarding translating metaphors, see [Metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md).
* To learn more about biblical imagery, complex metaphors, and cultural models in the Bible, see [Biblical Imagery](../biblicalimageryta/01.md), [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and [Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models](../bita-part3/01.md).

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What is a complex metaphor?

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Complex Metaphor

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### Description
An **extended metaphor** is an explicit metaphor that uses multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time. This is in contrast to a [simple metaphor](../figs-simetaphor/01.md), which uses only a single Image and a single Idea. The difference between an extended metaphor and a [complex metaphor](../figs-cometaphor/01.md) is that an extended metaphor is explicitly stated by a writer/speaker, but a complex metaphor is not.
An extended metaphor occurs when someone speaks of a situation as if it were a different situation. He does this in order to effectively describe the first situation by implying that in some important way it is similar to the other. The second situation has multiple **images** of people, things, and actions that represent those in the first situation.
### Explanation of an Extended Metaphor
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
When using a metaphor, a writer/speaker uses a physical Image in order to express an abstract Idea about some immediate Topic, with at least one point of comparison between the Topic and the Image. In an extended metaphor, the writer/speaker explicitly states the Topic, and then describes multiple images and communicates multiple ideas.
* People may not realize that the images represent other things.
* People may not be familiar with the things that are used as images.
* Extended metaphors are often so profound that it would be impossible for a translator to show all of the meaning generated by the metaphor.
In Isaiah 5:1-7, the prophet Isaiah uses a vineyard (the **Image**) to express God’s disappointment (the **Idea**) with the nation of Israel (the **Topic**) for their unfaithfulness to God and his covenant with them as his people. Farmers care for their gardens, and a farmer would feel disappointed if his vineyard produced bad fruit. If a vineyard produced only bad fruit for a long enough time, the farmer would eventually stop caring for it. We call this an extended metaphor because the prophet describes in detail multiple images relating to a vineyard as well as multiple aspects of God's disappointment.
#### Translation Principles
> <sup>1</sup> …My well beloved had a <u>vineyard</u> on a very fertile hill. <sup>2</sup> He <u>spaded it</u> and <u>removed the stones</u>, and <u>planted it</u> with the choicest vine. He <u>built a tower</u> in the middle of it, and also <u>built a winepress</u>. <u>He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes</u>. <sup>3</sup> So now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah; judge between me and my vineyard. <sup>4</sup> What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it? <u>When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes</u>? <sup>5</sup> Now I will inform you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge; I will turn it into a pasture; I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on. <sup>6</sup> I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. But briers and thorns will spring up, I will also command the clouds not to rain on it. <sup>7</sup> For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel, and the men of Judah his pleasant planting; <u>he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing</u>; <u>for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help</u>. (Isa 5:1-7 ULT)
* Make the meaning of the extended metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning more clear to the target audience than it was to the original audience.
* When someone uses an extended metaphor, the images are an important part of what he is trying to say.
* If the target audience is not familiar with some of the images, you will need to find some way of helping them understand the images so they can understand the whole extended metaphor.
### Other Examples from the Bible
### Examples from the Bible
In Psalm 23:1-4, the writer says that God’s concern and care for his people can be pictured as the care that a shepherd has for his flock of sheep. Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
In Psalm 23, the psalmist uses the physical **Image** of a shepherd to describe the way that God (the **Topic**) shows great concern and care (the **Idea**) for his people. The psalmist describes multiple aspects of what shepherds do for sheep (leads them to pasture and to water, protects them, etc.). The psalmist also describes multiple aspects of how God takes care of him (gives him life, righteousenss, comfort, etc.). Shepherds give sheep what they need, take them to safe places, rescue them, guide them, and protect them. What God does for his people is like these actions.
> <sup> 1</sup> Yahweh is my shepherd; I will lack nothing.
> <sup> 2</sup> He <u>makes me</u> to lie down in green pastures;
@ -27,40 +20,32 @@ In Psalm 23:1-4, the writer says that God’s concern and care for his people ca
> he <u>guides me</u> along right paths for his name’s sake.
> <sup> 4</sup> Even though I walk through a valley of darkest shadow,
> I will not fear harm since you are with me;
> your rod and your staff comfort me. (ULT)
> your rod and your staff comfort me. (Psa 23:1-4 ULT)
In Isaiah 5:1-7, Isaiah presents God’s disappointment with his people as the disappointment that a farmer would feel if his vineyard only produced bad fruit. Farmers care for their gardens, but if they only produce bad fruit, farmers eventually stop caring for them. Verses 1 through 6 appear to be simply about a farmer and his vineyard, but verse 7 makes it clear that it is about God and his people.
### Reasons this is a translation issue
> <sup> 1</sup> …My well beloved had a vineyard on a very fertile hill.
> <sup> 2</sup> He spaded it and removed the stones, and planted it with the choicest vine.
> He built a tower in the middle of it, and also built a winepress.
> He waited for it to produce grapes, but it produced wild grapes.
* People may not realize that the images represent other things.
* People may not be familiar with the things that are used as images.
* Extended metaphors are often so profound that it would be impossible for a translator to show all of the meaning generated by the metaphor.
> <sup> 3</sup> So now, inhabitants of Jerusalem and men of Judah;
> judge between me and my vineyard.
> <sup> 4</sup> What more could have been done for my vineyard, that I have not done for it?
> When I looked for it to produce grapes, why did it produce wild grapes?
> <sup> 5</sup> Now I will inform you what I will do to my vineyard; I will remove the hedge;
> I will turn it into a pasture; I will break down its wall, and it will be trampled on.
> <sup> 6</sup> I will lay it waste, and it will not be pruned nor hoed. But briers and thorns will spring up,
> I will also command the clouds not to rain on it.
### Translation Principles
> <sup> 7</sup> For the vineyard of Yahweh of hosts is the house of Israel,
> and the men of Judah his pleasant planting;
> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help. (ULT)
* Make the meaning of the extended metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
* Do not make the meaning more clear to the target audience than it was to the original audience.
* When someone uses an extended metaphor, the images are an important part of what he is trying to say.
* If the target audience is not familiar with some of the images, you will need to find some way of helping them understand the images so that they can understand the whole extended metaphor.
### Translation Strategies
Consider using the same extended metaphor if your readers will understand it in the same way the original readers would have understood it. If not, here are some other strategies:
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
1. If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two.
1. If the target audience would not know the image, find a way of translating it so they can understand what the image is.
1. If the target audience still would not understand, then state it clearly.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate it as a simile by using “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two. See Psalm 23:1-2 as an example:
(1) If the target audience would think that the images should be understood literally, translate the metaphor as a simile by using words such as “like” or “as.” It may be enough to to do this in just the first sentence or two. See Psalm 23:1-2 as an example:
> **Yahweh is <u>my shepherd</u>; I will lack nothing.**
> **He makes <u>me</u> to lie down in green pastures;**
@ -109,5 +94,4 @@ or as:
>> <u>Yahweh will stop protecting</u> Israel and Judah,
>> <u>because they do not do what is right</u>.
>> he waited for justice, but instead, there was killing;
>> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.
>> for righteousness, but, instead, a cry for help.

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translate/figs-metaphor/01.md
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@ -1,29 +1,44 @@
### Description
A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one concept is used for another, and in which there is at least one point of comparison between the two. In other words, in metaphor, someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because he wants people to think about how those two things are alike. For example, someone might say,
A **metaphor** is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because he wants people to think about how those two things are alike.
For example, someone might say:
* The girl I love is a red rose.
In this case, the speaker wants the hearer to think about what is similar between his topic, “the girl I love,” and the image he is using to compare her, “a red rose.” Most probably, he wants us to consider that they are both beautiful.
A girl and a rose are very different things, but the speaker considers that they are alike in some way. The hearer's task is to understand in what way they are alike.
Sometimes speakers use metaphors that are very common in their language. However, sometimes speakers use metaphors that are uncommon, and even some metaphors that are unique.
### The Parts of a Metaphor
Speakers most often use metaphors in order to strengthen their message, to make their language more vivid, to express their feelings better, to say something that is hard to say in any other way, or to help people remember their message.
The example above shows us that a metaphor has three parts. In this metaphor, the speaker is talking about "the girl I love." This is the **Topic**. The speaker wants the hearer to think about what is similar between her and "a red rose." The red rose is the **Image** to which he compares the girl. Most probably, he wants the hearer to consider that they are both <u>beautiful</u>. This is the **Idea** that the girl and the rose both share, and so we may also call it the **Point of Comparison**.
### Kinds of Metaphors
Every metaphor has three parts:
There are two basic kinds of metaphors: “dead” metaphors and “live” metaphors. They each present a different kind of translation problem.
* The **Topic**, the item being immediately discussed by the writer/speaker.
#### Dead Metaphors
* The **Image**, the physical item (object, event, action, etc.) which the speaker uses to describe the topic.
A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that its speakers no longer regard it as one concept standing for another. Dead metaphors are extremely common. Examples in English are “table leg,” “family tree,” “leaf” meaning a page in a book, and “crane” meaning a large machine for lifting heavy loads. English speakers simply think of these words as having more than one meaning. Examples in Biblical Hebrew are “hand” to mean “power,” “face” to mean “presence,” and speaking of emotions or moral qualities as if they were “clothing.”
* The **Idea**, the abstract concept or quality that the physical **Image** brings to the mind of the hearer when he thinks of how the **Image** and the **Topic** are similar. Often, the **Idea** of a metaphor is not explicitly stated in the Bible, but it is only implied from the context. The hearer or reader usually needs to think of the **Idea** himself.
**Patterned Pairs of Concepts acting as Metaphors**
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction UP often stands for the concept of MORE or BETTER. Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as “The price of gasoline is going *up*,” “A *highly* intelligent man,” and also the opposite kind of idea: “The temperature is going *down*,” and “I am feeling very *low*.”
Using these terms, we can say that a **metaphor** is a figure of speech that uses a physical **Image** to apply an abstract **Idea** to the speaker's **Topic**.
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world’s languages, because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities, such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities, as if they were objects that could be seen or held, as if they were body parts, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
Usually, a writer or speaker uses a metaphor in order to express something about a **Topic**, with at least one **Point of Comparison** (**Idea**) between the **Topic** and the **Image**. Often in metaphors, the **Topic** and the **Image** are explicitly stated, but the **Idea** is only implied. The writer/speaker often uses a metaphor in order to invite the readers/listeners to think about the similarity between the **Topic** and the **Image** and to figure out for themselves the **Idea** that is being communicated.
Speakers often use metaphors in order to strengthen their message, to make their language more vivid, to express their feelings better, to say something that is hard to say in any other way, or to help people remember their message.
Sometimes speakers use metaphors that are very common in their language. However, sometimes speakers use metaphors that are uncommon, and even some metaphors that are unique. When a metaphor has become very common in a language, often it becomes a "passive" metaphor, in contrast to uncommon metaphors, which we describe as being "active." Passive metaphors and active metaphors each present a different kind of translation problem, which we will discuss below.
### Passive Metaphors
A passive metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that its speakers no longer regard it as one concept standing for another. Passive metaphors are extremely common. Examples in English include the terms “table <u>leg</u>", “family <u>tree</u>”, “book <u>leaf</u>” (meaning a page in a book), or the word “crane” (meaning a large machine for lifting heavy loads). English speakers simply think of these words as having more than one meaning. Examples of passive metaphors in Biblical Hebrew include using the word “hand” to represent “power,” using the word “face” to represent “presence,” and speaking of emotions or moral qualities as if they were “clothing.”
#### Patterned Pairs of Concepts acting as Metaphors
Many ways of metaphorical speaking depend on pairs of concepts, where one underlying concept frequently stands for a different underlying concept. For example, in English, the direction UP (the Image) often represents the concepts of MORE or BETTER (the Idea). Because of this pair of underlying concepts, we can make sentences such as “The price of gasoline is going *up*,” “A *highly* intelligent man,” and also the opposite kind of idea: “The temperature is going *down*,” and “I am feeling very *low*.”
Patterned pairs of concepts are constantly used for metaphorical purposes in the world’s languages, because they serve as convenient ways to organize thought. In general, people like to speak of abstract qualities (such as power, presence, emotions, and moral qualities) as if they were body parts, or as if they were objects that could be seen or held, or as if they were events that could be watched as they happened.
When these metaphors are used in normal ways, it is rare that the speaker and audience regard them as figurative speech. Examples of metaphors in English that go unrecognized are:
@ -32,13 +47,11 @@ When these metaphors are used in normal ways, it is rare that the speaker and au
* “You *defend* your theory well.” ARGUMENT is spoken of as WAR.
* “A *flow* of words” WORDS are spoken of as LIQUIDS.
English speakers do not view these as unusual or metaphorical expressions, so it would be wrong to translate them into other languages in a way that would lead people to pay special attention to them as figurative speech.
English speakers do not view these as metaphorical expressions or figures of speech, so it would be wrong to translate them into other languages in a way that would lead people to pay special attention to them as figurative speech. For a description of important patterns of this kind of metaphor in biblical languages, please see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and the pages it will direct you to.
For a description of important patterns of this kind of metaphor in biblical languages, please see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md) and the pages it will direct you to.
When translating something that is a passive metaphor into another language, do not treat it as a metaphor. Instead, just use the best expression for that thing or concept in the target language.
When translating something that is a dead metaphor into another language, do not treat it as a metaphor. Instead, just use the best expression for that thing or concept in the target language.
#### Live Metaphors
### Active Metaphors
These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. They make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors. For example,
@ -50,35 +63,19 @@ Here God speaks about his salvation as if it were the sun rising in order to shi
Here, “that fox” refers to King Herod. The people listening to Jesus certainly understood that Jesus was intending for them to apply certain characteristics of a fox to Herod. They probably understood that Jesus intended to communicate that Herod was evil, either in a cunning way or as someone who was destructive, murderous, or who took things that did not belong to him, or all of these.
Live metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, we need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning.
#### Parts of a Metaphor
A metaphor has three parts.
1. **Topic** - The thing someone speaks of is called the topic.
1. **Image** - The thing he calls it is the image.
1. **Point of Comparison** - The way or ways in which the author claims that the topic and image are similar are their points of comparison.
In the metaphor below, the speaker describes the woman he loves as a red rose. The woman (his “love”) is the **topic**, and “red rose” is the **image**. Beauty and delicacy are the **points of comparison** that the speaker sees as similarities between both the topic and the image.
* My love is a red, red rose.
Often, as in the metaphor above, the speaker explicitly states the **topic** and the **image**, but he does not state the **points of comparison**. The speaker leaves it to the hearer to think of those points of comparison. Because the hearers must think of these ideas themselves, the speaker’s message has a more powerful effect on the hearers.
Also in the Bible, normally the **topic** and the **image** are stated clearly, but not the **points of comparison**. The writer leaves it to the audience to think of and understand the points of comparison that are implied.
Active metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, you need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning.
> Jesus said to them, “I am the bread of life; he who comes to me will not be hungry, and he who believes in me will never be thirsty.” (John 6:35 ULT)
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **topic** is “I,” and the **image** is “bread.” Bread is a food that people ate all the time. The **point of comparison** between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have spiritual life.
In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **Topic** is “I” (meaning Jesus himself) and the **Image** is “bread”. Bread was the primary food that people ate in that place and time. The similarity between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have eternal life. The **Idea** of the metaphor is "life." In this case, Jesus stated the central Idea of the metaphor, but often the Idea is only implied.
**Purposes of Metaphor**
### Purposes of Metaphor
* One purpose of metaphor is to teach people about something that they do not know (the **topic**) by showing that it is like something that they already do know (the **image**).
* Another purpose is to emphasize that something has a particular quality or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
* Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the **topic** as they would feel about the **image**.
* One purpose of metaphor is to teach people about something that they do not know (the **Topic**) by showing that it is like something that they already do know (the **Image**).
* Another purpose is to emphasize that something (the **Topic**) has a particular quality (the **Idea**) or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
* Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the **Topic** as they would feel about the **Image**.
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
### Reasons this is a translation issue
* People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus misunderstand it.
* People may not be familiar with the thing that is used as an image, and so not be able to understand the metaphor.
@ -95,17 +92,17 @@ In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The **topic** is “I,
> Listen to this word, <u>you cows of Bashan</u>, (Amos 4:1 ULT)
In this metaphor Amos speaks to the upper-class women of Samaria (the topic is “you”) as if they were cows (the image). Amos does not say what points of comparison he intends between these women and cows. He wants the reader to think of them, and fully expects that readers from his culture will easily do so. From the context, we can see that he means that the women are like cows in that they are fat and interested only in feeding themselves. If we were to apply points of comparison from a different culture, such as that cows are sacred and should be worshipped, we would get the wrong meaning from this verse.
In this metaphor Amos speaks to the upper-class women of Samaria (“you”, the Topic) as if they were cows (the Image). Amos does not say what similarity(s) he intends between these women and cows. He wants the reader to think of them, and he fully expects that readers from his culture will easily do so. From the context, we can see that he means that the women are like cows in that they are fat and interested only in feeding themselves. If we were to apply similarities from a different culture, such as that cows are sacred and should be worshipped, we would get the wrong meaning from this verse.
Note, also, that Amos does not actually mean that the women are cows. He speaks to them as human beings.
NOTE: Amos does not actually mean that the women are cows. He speaks to them as human beings.
> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; <u>we are the clay</u>. <u>You are our potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
The example above has two related metaphors. The topics are “we” and “you,” and the images are “clay and “potter.” The intended point of comparison between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material: the potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The point of comparison between the potter’s clay and “us” is that neither the clay nor God’s people have a right to complain about what they are becoming.
The example above has two related metaphors. The Topic(s) are “we” and “you,” and the Image(s) are “clay and “potter”. The similarity between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material. The potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The Idea being expressed by the comparison between the potter’s clay and “us” is that <u>neither the clay nor God’s people have a right to complain about what they are becoming</u>.
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of <u>the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees</u>.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we took no bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
Jesus used a metaphor here, but his disciples did not realize it. When he said “yeast,” they thought he was talking about bread, but “yeast” was the image in his metaphor, and the topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples (the original audience) did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.
Jesus used a metaphor here, but his disciples did not realize it. When he said “yeast,” they thought he was talking about bread, but “yeast” was the Image in his metaphor, and the Topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples (the original audience) did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.
### Translation Strategies
@ -114,52 +111,52 @@ If people would understand the metaphor in the same way that the original reader
If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a “dead” metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
1. If the metaphor seems to be a “live” metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as.” See [Simile](../figs-simile/01.md).
1. If the target audience would not know the **image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
1. If the target audience would not use that **image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
1. If the target audience would not know what the **topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
1. If the target audience would not know the intended **point of comparison** between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
1. If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.
1. If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (that is, it is a passive metaphor), then express the **Idea** in the simplest way preferred by your language.
1. If the metaphor seems to be an active metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as”. See [Simile](../figs-simile/01.md).
1. If the target audience would not know the **Image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
1. If the target audience would not use that **Image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
1. If the target audience would not know what the **Topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the Topic was.)
1. If the target audience would not know the intended similarity (the **Idea**) between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
1. If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the **Idea** plainly without using a metaphor.
### Examples of Translation Strategies Applied
(1) If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (a “dead” metaphor), then express the main idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
(1) If the metaphor is a common expression in the source language or expresses a patterned pair of concepts in a biblical language (that is, a passive metaphor), then express the Idea in the simplest way preferred by your language.
> **Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, <u>fell at his feet</u>.** (Mark 5:22 ULT)
>> Then one of the leaders of the synagogue, named Jairus, came, and when he saw him, <u>immediately bowed down in front of him</u>.
(2) If the metaphor seems to be a “live” metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
(2) If the metaphor seems to be an active metaphor, you can translate it literally <u>if you think that the target language also uses this metaphor in the same way to mean the same thing as in the Bible</u>. If you do this, be sure to test it to make sure that the language community understands it correctly.
> **It was because of your <u>hard hearts</u> that he wrote you this law,** (Mark 10:5 ULT)
>> It was because of your <u>hard hearts</u> that he wrote you this law,
There is no change to this one - but it must be tested to make sure that the target audience correctly understands this metaphor.
We made no change to this one, but it must be tested to make sure that the target audience correctly understands this metaphor.
(3) If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as.”
(3) If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding words such as “like” or “as”.
> **And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are <u>like</u> clay. You are <u>like</u> a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.
(4) If the target audience would not know the **image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
(4) If the target audience would not know the **Image**, see [Translate Unknowns](../translate-unknown/01.md) for ideas on how to translate that image.
> **Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you <u>to kick a goad</u>.** (Acts 26:14 ULT)
>> Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to <u>kick against a pointed stick</u>.
(5) If the target audience would not use that **image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
(5) If the target audience would not use that **Image** for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
> **And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>clay</u>. You are our <u>potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.** (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
>> “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>wood</u>. You are our <u>carver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.”
>> “And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the <u>string</u>. You are the <u>weaver</u>; and we all are the work of your hand.”
(6) If the target audience would not know what the **topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
(6) If the target audience would not know what the **Topic** is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
> **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>> Yahweh lives; <u>He is my rock</u>. May he be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
(7) If the target audience would not know the intended **point of comparison** between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
(7) If the target audience would not know the intended similarity between the Topic and the Image, then state it clearly.
> **Yahweh lives; may <u>my rock</u> be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.** (Psalm 18:46 ULT)
>> Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he is the rock <u>under which I can hide from my enemies</u>. May the God of my salvation be exalted.

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### Description
**Metonymy** is a figure of speech in which a thing or idea is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it. A **metonym** is a word or phrase used as a substitute for something it is associated with.
**Metonymy** is an implicit figure of speech in which an item (either physical or abstract) is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it. A **metonym** is a word or phrase used as a substitute for something it is associated with.
> and <u>the blood</u> of Jesus his Son cleanses us from all sin. (1 John 1:7 ULT)
The blood represents Christ’s death.

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#### Preferred Word Order
All languages have a preferred word order. The examples below show the order of the subject, object, and verb in “Peter hit the ball” for some languages.
In some languages, such as English, the normal word order is Subject-Verb-Object.
All languages have a preferred word order. However, word order is more important in some languages than for others. The examples below show the order of the subject, object, and verb in “Peter hit the ball” for some languages.
In some languages the order is Subject-Verb-Object. This is normal word order for English.
* Peter hit the ball.
@ -52,10 +53,12 @@ In some languages the order is Subject-Object-Verb.
* Peter the ball hit.
In some languages the order is Verb-Subject-Object.
In some languages the order is Verb-Subject-Object. This is normal word order for [Biblical Hebrew](../figs-orderHeb/01.md).
* Hit Peter the ball.
In some languages the order is not important for the meaning of the sentence, because the language uses other ways to indicate whether a word is the subject, the verb, or the object. Both [Biblical Aramaic](../figs-orderHeb/01.md) and [Koiné Greek](,,/figs-orderGrk/01.md) are languages like this.
#### Changes in Word Order
Word order can change if the sentence:

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There is no general agreement among scholars concerning standard word order for Koiné Greek as a language. It has been suggested that the normal word order in the New Testament is: **Conjunction-Verb-Subject-Object-Modifiers.** However, most scholars agree that word order is very free in the New Testament (and in Koiné Greek as a whole) and does not greatly impact the meaning of a sentence or paragraph.
However, the Greek language operates according to two general principles in regard to emphasizing a part(s) of speech within a sentence.
#### Emphasis is shown by moving a word(s) toward the beginning of the sentence.
In other words, a writer/speaker does not emphasize words in Greek by moving them toward the end of the sentence, but by moving them toward the beginning of the sentence.
#### A word moved to the first position of a sentence is emphasized as the most important.
In other words, a writer/speaker shows that one particular word is the most important information in the sentence by putting it first in the sentence.

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Word order in Koiné Greek

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Word Order

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The normal word order for Biblical Hebrew is: **Conjunction–Verb–Subject–Object.**
However, there are many different reasons why a writer/speaker of Biblical Hebrew might choose a different word order. Some of the variations are important for understanding and translating the Hebrew text, and some are not. This module will briefly explain some of the most important variations in Hebrew word order and how those variations affect the meaning of the text.
#### <u>Particle</u>–Verb–Subject–Object
Sometimes a particle takes the place of the conjunction. Often (but not always) in these cases, the particle is functioning as a [connecting word](../grammar-connect-words-phrases/01.md) that expresses a specific kind of logical relationship between the chunk before the particle and the chunk after the particle. NOTE: this rule does not apply to negative particles or temporal particles.
#### Conjunction-<u>Subject</u>-Verb-Object
Often the subject of a sentence appears before the verb instead of after it. Many of these instances have very little impact on the meaning of a sentence or paragraph. However, sometimes a writer/speaker puts the subject first in order to [begin a new story or event](../writing-newevent), to [give background information](../writing-background), to [introduce a new participant (or re-introduce an old participant)](../writing-participants), or to [end a story](../writing-endofstory).
#### [Conjunction]-<u>Temporal phrase</u>–Verb–Subject–Object
When a temporal phrase appears before the verb, often (but not always) the temporal phrase [introduces a new story or event](../writing-newevent) within the narrative. Sometimes a conjunction appears before the temporal phrase, and sometimes not.
#### Conjunction–[<u>any other part of speech</u>]–Verb–Subject–Object
When another part of speech (other than a temporal phrase or negative particle) appears before the verb, usually (but not always) it is because the writer/speaker is emphasizing that particular item as the most important information in the sentence.
### Word Order in Biblical Aramaic
Most scholars agree that word order is so free in Biblical Aramaic that no distinct patterns of standard word order can be observed. Therefore, it is best to assume that word order has no affect on the meaning of a sentence in Aramaic.

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Word order in Biblical Hebrew

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Word Order

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#### Translation Issues
* Languages have different orders for the parts of a sentence. (See: //add Information Structure page//)
* Languages have different orders for the parts of a sentence. (See [Information Structure](../figs-infostructure).
* Some languages do not have relative clauses, or they use them in a limited way. (see [Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding](../figs-distinguish/01.md))

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A **simple metaphor** is an explicit [metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md) that uses a single physical **Image** to refer to a single abstract **Idea**. This is in contrast to [extended metaphors](../figs-exmetaphor) and [complex metaphors](../figs-cometaphor), which can use multiple images and multiple ideas at the same time.
### Explanation of a Simple Metaphor
Usually, a writer/speaker uses a simple metaphor in order to express something about a **Topic**, with one main **Idea** or **Point of Comparison** between the **Topic** and the **Image**. In simple metaphors, often the **Topic** and the **Image** are explicitly stated, but the **Idea** is not; it is only implied. The writer/speaker uses a metaphor in order to invite the reader/listener to think about the similarity between the **Topic** and the **Image** and to figure out for themselves the **Idea** that is being communicated.
For example, Jesus used a simple metaphor when he said:
> …I am the light of the world. (John 9:5 ULT)
In this simple metaphor, the **Topic** is Jesus himself. The **Image** is the phrase "light of the world," because light is the physical object that Jesus uses to refer to some unknown **Idea** about himself. As is often the case with simple metaphors in the Bible, in this instance Jesus does not explicitly tell his listeners the Idea that he intends to convey. The reader must read the story and figure out the Idea for himself from the context.
After making this statement, Jesus healed a man who was born blind. After the healed man saw Jesus for the first time and worshiped Him as God, Jesus explained the Idea of his "light of the world" metaphor:
> …I came into this world so that those who do not see may see… (John 9:35 ULT)
Jesus was using the **Image** of seeing physical "light" to express the abstract **Idea** of <u>understanding, believing, and confessing that Jesus is God</u>. Jesus healed the blind man, giving him physical sight; similarly, Jesus told the blind man who He was, and the blind man believed.
> Then the man said, “Lord, I believe,” and he worshiped him. (John 9:34 ULT)
### Other Examples from the Bible
> Listen to this word, <u>you cows of Bashan</u>, (Amos 4:1 ULT)
In this metaphor Amos spoke to the upper-class women of Samaria (“you”, the Topic) as if they were cows (the Image). Amos did not say what similarity(s) he was thinking of between these women and cows. He wants the reader to think of them, and he fully expects that readers from his culture will easily do so. From the context, we can see that he meant that the women are like cows in that they are fat and interested only in feeding themselves. If we were to apply similarities from a different culture, such as that cows are sacred and should be worshipped, we would get the wrong meaning from this verse.
NOTE: Amos did not actually mean that the women were cows. He spoke to them as human beings.
> And yet, Yahweh, you are our father; <u>we are the clay</u>. <u>You are our potter</u>; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULT)
The example above has two related metaphors. The Topic(s) are “we” and “you,” and the Image(s) are “clay and “potter”. The similarity between a potter and God is the fact that both make what they wish out of their material. The potter makes what he wishes out of the clay, and God makes what he wishes out of his people. The Idea being expressed by the comparison between the potter’s clay and “us” is that <u>neither the clay nor God’s people have a right to complain about what they are becoming</u>.
> Jesus said to them, “Take heed and beware of <u>the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees</u>.” The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, “It is because we took no bread.” (Matthew 16:6-7 ULT)
Jesus used a metaphor here, but his disciples did not realize it. When he said “yeast,” they thought he was talking about bread, but “yeast” was the Image in his metaphor, and the Topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples (the original audience) did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.
### Translation Strategies
* Simple metaphors in the Bible should be translated like active metaphors.
* For strategies regarding translating metaphors, see [Metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md).
* To learn more about simple metaphors, see [Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns](../bita-part1/01.md).

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What is a simple metaphor?

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Simple Metaphor

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A simile is a comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. One is said to be “like” the other. It focuses on a particular trait the two items have in common, and it includes the words “like,” “as” or “than.”
A simile is an explicit comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. One is said to be “like” the other. It focuses on a particular trait the two items have in common, and it includes the words “like,” “as” or “than.”
### Description

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@ -5,6 +5,14 @@ As humans, we write our thoughts in phrases and sentences. Usually, we want to c
* It was raining, <u>so</u> I opened my umbrella.
* It was raining, <u>but</u> I did not have an umbrella. <u>So</u> I got very wet.
Connecting Words or Phrases can connect phrases or clauses within a sentence. They can connect sentences to each other. They can also connect entire chunks to one another in order to show how the chunk before relates to the chunk after. Very often, the Connecting Words that connect entire chunks to one another are either conjunctions or adverbs.
> It was raining, but I did not have an umbrella. So I got very wet.
> <u>Now</u> I must change my clothes. Then I will drink a cup of hot tea and warm myself by the fire.
In the above example, the word "now" connects the two short chunks of text, showing the relationship between them. The speaker must change his clothes, drink hot tea, and warm himself because of something that happened earlier (that is, he got wet in the rain).
Sometimes people might not use a Connecting Word because they expect the readers to understand the relationship between the thoughts because of the context. Some languages do not use Connecting Words as much as other languages do. They might say:
* It was raining. I did not have an umbrella. I got very wet.
@ -13,7 +21,7 @@ You (the translator) will need to use the method that is most natural and clear
#### Reasons this is a translation issue
* You need to understand the relationship between sentences and parts of sentences in the Bible, and how Connecting Words and Phrases can help you to understand the relationship between the thoughts that it is connecting.
* You need to understand the relationship between paragraphs, between sentences, and between parts of sentences in the Bible, and how Connecting Words and Phrases can help you to understand the relationship between the thoughts that it is connecting.
* Each language has its own ways of showing how thoughts are related.
* You need to know how to help readers understand the relationship between the thoughts in a way that is natural in your language.

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@ -10,4 +10,4 @@ Sometimes there are notes for a phrase and separate notes for portions of that p
* **But it is to the extent of your hardness and unrepentant heart** - Paul uses a metaphor to compare a person who refuses to obey God to something hard, like a stone. He also uses the metonym “heart” to represent the whole person. AT: “It is because you refuse to listen and repent” (See: [Metaphor](../figs-metaphor/01.md) and [Metonymy](../figs-metonymy/01.md))
* **hardness and unrepentant heart** - The phrase “unrepentant heart” explains the word “hardness” (See: [Doublet](../figs-doublet/01.md))
In this example the first note explains the metaphor and the metonym in the longer phrase as a whole, and the second explains the shorter phrase within the longer phrase.
In this example the first note explains the metaphor and the metonym in the longer phrase as a whole, and the second note explains the doublet within the longer phrase.

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@ -114,7 +114,7 @@ sections:
- title: "unfoldingWord® Literal Text (ULT) and unfoldingWord® Simplified Text (UST) Formatting Signals"
link: translate-formatsignals
- title: "How to Use the ULT and UST when Translating the Bible"
link: translate-useulbudb
link: translate-useultust
- title: "Use the translationHelps when Translating"
sections:
- title: "Notes with Links"
@ -150,48 +150,74 @@ sections:
link: resources-questions
- title: "Just-in-Time Learning Modules"
sections:
- title: "Figures of Speech"
- title: "Translation Issues"
sections:
- title: "Figures of Speech"
link: figs-intro
- title: "Apostrophe"
link: figs-apostrophe
- title: "Doublet"
link: figs-doublet
- title: "Euphemism"
link: figs-euphemism
- title: "Extended Metaphor"
link: figs-exmetaphor
- title: "Hendiadys"
link: figs-hendiadys
- title: "Hyperbole"
link: figs-hyperbole
- title: "Idiom"
link: figs-idiom
- title: "Irony"
link: figs-irony
- title: "Litotes"
link: figs-litotes
- title: "Merism"
link: figs-merism
- title: "Metaphor"
link: figs-metaphor
- title: "Metonymy"
link: figs-metonymy
- title: "Parallelism"
link: figs-parallelism
- title: "Parallelism with the Same Meaning"
link: figs-synonparallelism
- title: "Personification"
link: figs-personification
- title: "Predictive Past"
link: figs-pastforfuture
- title: "Rhetorical Question"
link: figs-rquestion
- title: "Simile"
link: figs-simile
- title: "Synecdoche"
link: figs-synecdoche
- title: "Textual Variants"
link: translate-textvariants
- title: "Verse Bridges"
link: translate-versebridge
- title: "Writing Styles (Discourse)"
sections:
- title: "Writing Styles"
link: writing-intro
- title: "Background Information"
link: writing-background
- title: "End of Story"
link: writing-endofstory
- title: "Hypothetical Situations"
link: figs-hypo
- title: "Introduction of a New Event"
link: writing-newevent
- title: "Introduction of New and Old Participants"
link: writing-participants
- title: "Parables"
link: figs-parables
- title: "Poetry"
link: writing-poetry
- title: "Proverbs"
link: writing-proverbs
- title: "Symbolic Language"
link: writing-symlanguage
- title: "Symbolic Prophecy"
link: writing-apocalypticwriting
- title: "Sentences"
sections:
- title: "Sentence Structure"
link: figs-sentences
- title: "Information Structure"
link: figs-infostructure
- title: "Sentence Types"
link: figs-sentencetypes
sections:
- title: "Statements - Other Uses"
link: figs-declarative
- title: "Imperatives - Other Uses"
link: figs-imperative
- title: "Exclamations"
link: figs-exclamations
- title: "Connecting Words"
link: grammar-connect-words-phrases
sections:
- title: "Sequential Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-time-sequential
- title: "Simultaneous Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-time-simultaneous
- title: "Background Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-time-background
- title: "Goal or Purpose Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-logic-goal
- title: "Reason-Result Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-logic-result
- title: "Contrast Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-logic-contrast
- title: "Factual Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-fact
- title: "Contrary-to-Fact Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-contrary
- title: "Hypothetical Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-hypothetical
- title: "Exception Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-exceptions
- title: "Grammar"
sections:
- title: "Grammar Topics"
@ -200,28 +226,6 @@ sections:
link: figs-abstractnouns
- title: "Active or Passive"
link: figs-activepassive
- title: "Connect - Contrary to Fact Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-contrary
- title: "Connect - Factual Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-fact
- title: "Connect - Hypothetical Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-condition-hypothetical
- title: "Connect - Exception Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-exceptions
- title: "Connect - Contrast Relationship"
link: grammar-connect-logic-contrast
- title: "Connect - Goal (Purpose) Relationship"
link: grammar-connect-logic-goal
- title: "Connect - Reason-Result Relationship"
link: grammar-connect-logic-result
- title: "Connect - Background Information"
link: grammar-connect-time-background
- title: "Connect - Simultaneous Time Relationship"
link: grammar-connect-time-sequential
- title: "Connect - Words and Phrases"
link: grammar-connect-time-simultaneous
- title: "Connect - Sequential Time Relationship"
link: grammar-connect-words-phrases
- title: "Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding"
link: figs-distinguish
- title: "Double Negatives"
@ -251,7 +255,23 @@ sections:
- title: "When Masculine Words Include Women"
link: figs-gendernotations
- title: "Word Order"
link: figs-order
sections:
- title: "Word Order – General"
link: figs-order
- title: "Word Order – Hebrew"
link: figs-orderHeb
- title: "Word Order - Greek"
link: figs-orderGrk
- title: "Quotes"
sections:
- title: "Quotations and Quote Margins"
link: writing-quotations
- title: "Direct and Indirect Quotations"
link: figs-quotations
- title: "Quote Markings"
link: figs-quotemarks
- title: "Quotes within Quotes"
link: figs-quotesinquotes
- title: "Pronouns"
sections:
- title: "Pronouns"
@ -268,86 +288,6 @@ sections:
link: figs-rpronouns
- title: "Pronouns - When to Use Them"
link: writing-pronouns
- title: "Sentences"
sections:
- title: "Sentence Structure"
link: figs-sentences
- title: "Information Structure"
link: figs-infostructure
- title: "Sentence Types"
link: figs-sentencetypes
sections:
- title: "Statements - Other Uses"
link: figs-declarative
- title: "Imperatives - Other Uses"
link: figs-imperative
- title: "Exclamations"
link: figs-exclamations
- title: "Connecting Words"
link: grammar-connecting-words
sections:
- title: "Sequential Clauses"
link: grammar-connecting-words-time-sequential
- title: "Simultaneous Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-time-simultaneous
- title: "Background Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-time-background
- title: "Goal or Purpose Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-logic-goal
- title: "Reason-Result Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-logic-result
- title: "Contrast Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-logic-contrast
- title: "Factual Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-words-condition-fact
- title: "Contrary-to-Fact Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-words-condition-contrary
- title: "Hypothetical Conditions"
link: grammar-connect-words-condition-hypothetical
- title: "Exception Clauses"
link: grammar-connect-words-exceptions
- title: "Quotes"
sections:
- title: "Quotations and Quote Margins"
link: writing-quotations
- title: "Direct and Indirect Quotations"
link: figs-quotations
- title: "Quote Markings"
link: figs-quotemarks
- title: "Quotes within Quotes"
link: figs-quotesinquotes
- title: "Writing Styles (Discourse)"
sections:
- title: "Writing Styles"
link: writing-intro
- title: "Background Information"
link: writing-background
- title: "Connecting Words"
link: writing-connectingwords
- title: "End of Story"
link: writing-endofstory
- title: "Hypothetical Situations"
link: figs-hypo
- title: "Introduction of a New Event"
link: writing-newevent
- title: "Introduction of New and Old Participants"
link: writing-participants
- title: "Parables"
link: figs-parables
- title: "Poetry"
link: writing-poetry
- title: "Proverbs"
link: writing-proverbs
- title: "Symbolic Language"
link: writing-symlanguage
- title: "Symbolic Prophecy"
link: writing-apocalypticwriting
- title: "Translation Issues"
sections:
- title: "Textual Variants"
link: translate-textvariants
- title: "Verse Bridges"
link: translate-versebridge
- title: "Unknowns"
sections:
- title: "Translate Unknowns"
@ -382,27 +322,74 @@ sections:
link: translate-decimal
- title: "Symbolic Action"
link: translate-symaction
- title: "Figures of Speech"
sections:
- title: "Figures of Speech"
link: figs-intro
- title: "Apostrophe"
link: figs-apostrophe
- title: "Doublet"
link: figs-doublet
- title: "Euphemism"
link: figs-euphemism
- title: "Hendiadys"
link: figs-hendiadys
- title: "Hyperbole"
link: figs-hyperbole
- title: "Idiom"
link: figs-idiom
- title: "Irony"
link: figs-irony
- title: "Litotes"
link: figs-litotes
- title: "Merism"
link: figs-merism
- title: "Metaphor"
link: figs-metaphor
- title: "Metonymy"
link: figs-metonymy
- title: "Parallelism"
link: figs-parallelism
- title: "Parallelism with the Same Meaning"
link: figs-synonparallelism
- title: "Personification"
link: figs-personification
- title: "Predictive Past"
link: figs-pastforfuture
- title: "Rhetorical Question"
link: figs-rquestion
- title: "Simile"
link: figs-simile
- title: "Synecdoche"
link: figs-synecdoche
- title: "Biblical Imagery"
sections:
- title: "Biblical Imagery"
link: biblicalimageryta
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies"
link: bita-part2
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns"
link: bita-part1
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies"
link: bita-part2
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Simple Metaphors"
link: figs-simetaphor
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Extended Metaphors"
link: figs-exmetaphor
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Complex Metaphors"
link: figs-cometaphor
- title: "Common Metaphors in the Bible"
sections:
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Animals"
link: bita-animals
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Body Parts and Human Qualities"
link: bita-hq
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Farming"
link: bita-farming
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Human Behavior"
link: bita-humanbehavior
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects"
link: bita-manmade
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Natural Phenomena"
link: bita-phenom
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Man-made Objects"
link: bita-manmade
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Farming"
link: bita-farming
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Animals"
link: bita-animals
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Plants"
link: bita-plants
- title: "Biblical Imagery - Cultural Models"

61
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@ -36,14 +36,18 @@ Vowel sounds are the basic part of syllables. English has only five vowel symbol
[add articulation picture]
![](http://)
**The Vowels of English**
Position in the Mouth Front – Mid – Back
Rounding (unrounded) (unrounded) (rounded)
Tongue Height High i “beat” u “boot”
Mid-High i “bit” u “book”
Mid e “bait” u “but” o “boat”
Low-Mid e “bet” o “bought”
Low a “bat” a “body”
| Position in the Mouth | Front | Mid | Back |
| -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- |
| ROUNDING | (unrounded) | (unrounded) | (rounded)
| Tongue High | I “beat” | | U “boot” |
| Tongue Mid-High | I “bit” | | U “book” |
| Tongue Middle | E “bait” | U “but” | O “boat” |
| Tongue Mid-Low | | E “bet” | O “bought” |
| Tongue Low | A “bat” | | A “body” |
(Each of these vowels has its own symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet.)
@ -60,22 +64,19 @@ The **manner of articulation** describes how the airflow is slowed. It can come
**Voicing** shows whether or not the vocal chords are vibrating when the air passes through them. Most vowels, such as “a, e, i, u, o” are voiced sounds. Consonants can be voiced (+v), like “b,d,g,v,” or voiceless (-v) such as “p,t,k,f.” These are made at the same point of articulation and with the same articulators as the voiced consonants first mentioned. The only difference between “b,d,g,v” and “p,t,k,f” is voicing (+v and –v).
**The consonants of English**
Points of Articulation Lips Teeth Ridge Palate Velum Uvula Glottis
Voicing -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v
Articulator - Manner
Lips - Stop p / b
Lip - Fricative f / v
Tongue Tip -
Stop t / d
Liquid / l / r
Tongue Blade -
Fricative ch/dg
Tongue Back -
Stop k / g
Tongue Root -
Semi-Vowel / w / y h /
Nose – Continuant / m / n
| Points of Articulation | Lips | Teeth | Ridge | Palate | Velum | Uvula | Glottis |
| -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- |
| VOICING | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v |
| ARTICULATOR (manner) | | | | | | | |
| Lips (stop) | "p" / "b" | | | | | | |
| Lip (fricative) | | "f" / "v" | | | | | |
| Tongue Tip (stop) | | | "t" / "d" | | | | |
| Tongue Tip (liquid) | | | – / "l" | – / "r" | | | |
| Tongue Blade (fricative) | | | | "ch" / "dg" | | | |
| Tongue Back (stop) | | | | | "k" / "g" | | |
| Tongue Root (semi-vowel) | – / "w" | | | – / "y" | | "h" / – | |
| Nose (continuant) | – / "m" | | – / "n" | | | | |
**Naming the sounds** can be done by calling their features. The sound of “b” is called a Voiced Bilabial (meaning "two lips") Stop. The sound of “f” is known as a Voicelss Labio-dental (meaning "lip-teeth") Fricative. The sound of “n” is called a Voiced Alveolar (meaning "ridge") Nasal.
@ -83,10 +84,12 @@ The **manner of articulation** describes how the airflow is slowed. It can come
**Consonant Chart** – a consonant symbol chart is offered here without mentioning the Articulators. As you explore the sounds of your language, listening for voicing and feeling the position of your tongue and lips when you make the sound, you can fill out the charts in this article with symbols to represent those sounds.
Points of Articulation Lips Teeth Ridge Palate Velum Uvula Glottis
Voicing -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v -v/+v
Manner Stop p/ b t/ d k/ g
Fricative f/ v ch/dg
Liquid /l /r
Semi-vowel /w /y h/
Nasals /m /n
| Points of Articulation | Lips | Teeth | Ridge | Palate | Velum | Uvula | Glottis |
| -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- | -------- |
| VOICING | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v | -v / +v |
| MANNER | | | | | | | |
| Stop | "p" / "b" | | "t" / "d" | | "k" / "g" | | |
| Fricative | | "f" / "v" | | "ch" / "dg" | | | |
| Liquid | | | – / "l" | – / "r" | | | |
| Semi-vowel) | – / "w" | | | – / "y" | | "h" / – | |
| Nasals | – / "m" | | – / "n" | | | | |

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translate/translate-more/01.md
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@ -11,6 +11,6 @@ There are various ways in which we can represent the ideas in a source text: we
#### What do we mean by “tension” in texts?
Examples of tension occur when a reader wonders what will happen next to the participants in a story, or when a reader follows the argument, encouragement, and warnings of an epistle writer or of a conversation that is reported in the text. A reader can feel tension when reading a psalm, since the praises of God affect the psalmist in various ways. When reading an Old Testament prophetic book, the reader can feel tension rise as the prophet condemns people for their sin, or as he warns them to turn back to God. Tension may also be felt when reading about God’s promises for the future, as one considers when God fulfilled those promises, or when he will fulfill them. Good translators study the kinds of tension in the source documents, and they try to recreate those tensions in the target language.
Examples of tension occur when a reader wonders what will happen next to the participants in a story, or when a reader follows the argument, encouragement, and warnings of an epistle writer or of a conversation that is reported in the text. A reader can feel tension when reading a psalm, because the psalmists sometimes express a wide variety of emotions (both positive and negative!) when singing praise to God. When reading an Old Testament prophetic book, the reader can feel tension rise as the prophet condemns people for their sin, or as he warns them to turn back to God. Tension may also be felt when reading about God’s promises for the future, as one considers when God fulfilled those promises, or when he will fulfill them. Good translators study the kinds of tension in the source documents, and they try to recreate those tensions in the target language.
Another way to talk about recreating the tensions in the source text is to say that the translation should have the same effect on the target audience that the source text had on the original audience. For example, if the source text is a rebuke to the original audience, the target audience should also feel the translation as a rebuke. A translator will need to think about how the target language expresses rebukes and other types of communication, so that the translation will have the right kind of effect on the target audience.